Rhythmic drumming journeys

1. Introduction

Version followed: Michael Harner's core shamanism drumming journey, as published by the Foundation for Shamanic Studies (FSS) on its public workshop, drumming and ethics pages (read October 2026), plus the FSS page on Harner Shamanic Counseling (HSC). Clinical framing (therapy-session structure, screening) comes from secondary sources and is marked as such. Harner's books (The Way of the Shaman, 1980; Cave and Cosmos, 2013) are not drawn on here [uncertain]. Any step not on the FSS pages is marked.

What it is. A rhythmic drumming journey is a non-drug altered-state method. The person lies or sits with eyes covered and listens to steady, monotonous drumming (or rattling). They hold a set intention and imagine travelling from a familiar place in ordinary life into what the tradition calls "nonordinary reality". When a fast drum signal sounds, they return and then record the experience. FSS describes core shamanism as a methodology built on "common and universal features of shamanism" that are "not culturally-specific". It credits Harner with originating, researching and developing it over nearly 50 years [source: FSS, The Way of the Shaman workshop page; FSS, Core Shamanism and Respect for Indigenous Cultures].

How change happens, in its own terms. In FSS's account, the journeyer meets "compassionate helping spirit teachers and power animals" and uses them for healing, problem solving, gaining knowledge and building spiritual power. HSC calls itself "a spiritual rather than a psychological system": the client puts questions to "wise teachers" met in the journey [source: FSS workshop pages; FSS HSC page]. That spirits are real, and that these entities exist, is FSS's teaching; this guide does not assert it as fact. In research and in psychotherapy-adjacent writing, the method is framed as repetitive auditory stimulation plus journey instructions. That combination produces vivid imagery, meetings with figures (often animals), dreamlike states and personal insight. Clients then process this material like other imagery or dream material [source: Kjellgren & Eriksson 2010 abstract; Gingras et al. 2014, PLOS ONE; GoodTherapy]. Placing the method inside psychotherapy is not something FSS offers. FSS states that its workshops are "not for healing or treating any student or participant for any physical or mental condition or illness". Every clinical use in this guide is therefore an adaptation [synthesis].

What this entry is not. Core shamanism is Harner's Western, cross-cultural construction. It is not an Indigenous ceremony, and FSS says it "does not borrow ceremony and practices from indigenous cultures". Indigenous healing and ceremonial traditions belong to their own communities and knowledge holders. They are covered under Domain XI, and nothing here describes or substitutes for them [source: FSS, Core Shamanism and Respect for Indigenous Cultures].

2. Framework

Framework, not a manualised therapy. No published treatment manual for drumming journeys in psychotherapy exists in the sources used. What exists is: (a) FSS training courses; (b) the HSC divination format; (c) research protocols; and (d) generic therapy-session outlines from secondary sources [uncertain: no primary clinical protocol].

FSS training sequence (as published) [source: FSS workshop pages; FSS HSC page]

Entry: The Way of the Shaman, a two-day experiential weekend (13 FSS CE credits). Its online counterpart is The Shamanic Journey: Pathway to Knowledge and Power, taught in 4-hour blocks over two days. Content: instruction, guided practice journeys aided by drumming, group sharing and small-group discussion. Participants bring a drum or rattle, a notebook, an eye covering, comfortable clothing and, for one exercise, a rough natural rock (not a crystal). That exercise is not described publicly [uncertain]. Recording, phones and computers are not allowed in person. Online participants must keep audio and video on, in a private room.
Advanced: Further FSS courses (divination, healing, Shamanism in Practice), leading to a Gold Certificate.
HSC: A five-day intensive. Prerequisite: the basic workshop, plus already "succeeding at contacting" one's power animal or teacher alone. Participants take turns as client and counsellor. FSS stopped certifying HSC in 2008, and teaching HSC to two or more people needs written approval from Sandra Harner.
Movement between stages: Defined only by course completion and the journey-competence prerequisite. FSS publishes no clinical criteria.

Single-session structure for clinical use [source: GoodTherapy, secondary; FSS drumming page for the inner steps]

Preparation: Agree an intention and set up a safe, grounded setting.
Induction: Drumming (FSS: about 5 beats per second; GoodTherapy: 4–7 beats per second).
Journey: About 15–30 minutes. FSS recordings run 15 or 30 minutes and end with a fast callback. The Kjellgren & Eriksson research session lasted 20 minutes.
Integration: Discuss the experience, pick out insights and plan how to apply them. GoodTherapy gives 60–90 minutes for the whole session.

Course length in therapy: No source sets one [uncertain]. Suggested approach [synthesis]: one or two sessions of assessment and preparation, then a first short (about 10–15 minute) trial journey with a plain, low-stakes intention. Next, a block of about 3–6 journey sessions, each with integration, then review. Move to a new phase only when (a) the client can return from imagery on the callback and re-orient fully; (b) distress after a journey settles within the session; and (c) the material links to agreed therapy goals.

3. Guiding principles

Express informed consent in ordinary reality. FSS ethics: the client must give "express, informed consent", verbal or written. Consent "received" in a dream or journey does not count. Practically: get explicit, documented consent to the method itself, including its spiritual framing [source: Mokelke, Ethical Considerations; FSS Ethical Practice FAQ].
Keep to the scope the client asked for. FSS: work only on the issue requested, and ask before taking up related issues that come up. Practically: one agreed intention per journey; new themes are negotiated, not pursued on the spot [source: Mokelke].
Do not diagnose or give medical advice from journey material. FSS tells practitioners to resist giving medical diagnoses and to refer to trained professionals. Practically: imagery is never evidence for a diagnosis, a recovered memory or a medical decision [source: Mokelke; the recovered-memory point is synthesis].
Do not mix modalities until highly experienced. FSS advises against combining shamanic work with other methods too early. Practically: a therapist should get personal training first, and should keep journey sessions clearly framed and separate from other techniques such as EMDR or hypnosis [source: Mokelke; application synthesis].
Touch only with prior permission. FSS: physical contact carries therapist-like duties, is not necessary, and must be asked about in advance. Practically: default to no touch; journeys need none [source: Mokelke].
Confidentiality and no exploitation. Keep session content private and share it only with consent. FSS bars faculty from exploiting students, including through sexual relationships, and asks practitioners to apply the same standard to clients [source: Mokelke; FSS Ethical Practice FAQ].
Follow the client's lead. In HSC, the client is the journeyer and interpreter, and the counsellor gives orientation and methodological advice. Practically: do not supply imagery or meanings; ask, do not tell [source: FSS HSC page].
Respect the cultural distinction. FSS presents core shamanism as non-culture-specific and commits to avoiding cultural appropriation. Practically: do not call a drumming journey "Native American", "Indigenous" or "traditional" ceremony, and do not add borrowed ritual objects or words [source: FSS, Respect for Indigenous Cultures; application synthesis].
Treat spiritual framing as the client's choice. The FSS worldview (helping spirits, Lower and Upper Worlds) is the tradition's teaching. Practically: offer either a spiritual or a secular (imagery and relaxation) framing and use the client's language. Gingras et al. found that, with the same drumming, journey instructions changed the reported experience compared with relaxation instructions [source: Gingras et al. 2014, PLOS ONE; synthesis].
Clear state and setting. FSS: do not journey when tired or sleepy, or within 24 hours of alcohol or mind-altering substances; keep the volume comfortable. Practically: check these at the start of every session [source: FSS Shamanic Drumming page].

4. Intervention inventory

The FSS public pages give the outer frame of the journey: intention, setting, drum, departure point, callback and journal. The inner content (worlds, power-animal retrieval, interpretation) is taught in workshops and Harner's books. Those steps are given only at the level the FSS public pages state [uncertain]. Items 4.1, 4.2 and 4.13 are clinical additions [synthesis unless tagged].

4.1 Screening and contraindication check

Purpose / when: Before any first journey, and again if the client's state changes.
Contraindications and cautions named by sources:
- GoodTherapy (secondary): may be unsuitable for active psychosis or severe dissociation. Possible problems are emotional distress, cognitive difficulties, physical discomfort and, in intensive settings, severe reactions.
- FSS: do not journey when tired or sleepy, or within 24 hours of alcohol or mind-altering substances; avoid uncomfortable volume.
- A practitioner's sound and shamanic-clearing page (Bagshaw; low authority, a related but different practice): epilepsy, particularly sound-induced epilepsy; pregnancy; history of psychosis, severe depression, self-harm or suicidal thoughts; bipolar disorder; dissociation; personality disorders; dementia; active substance misuse; serious heart conditions or blood-pressure problems; sedating or mind-altering medication; recent trauma, or inability to stabilise after trauma triggers.
Steps:
1. Take a psychiatric history: psychosis, bipolar disorder (including current hypomania), dissociative disorders, PTSD and its stabilisation, current suicidality or self-harm, substance use.
2. Take a medical history: seizure disorder (ask specifically about seizures triggered by sound or rhythm), cardiovascular conditions, pregnancy, sedating medication. Also ask about hearing problems (tinnitus, hyperacusis, hearing aids) [hearing items: synthesis].
3. Take a spiritual and religious history: does a journey or "spirits" framing conflict with the client's faith? Has the client had a frightening spiritual or psychedelic experience? [synthesis]
4. Map trauma triggers: drums, darkness, blindfolds, lying down, closed eyes [synthesis].
5. Decide: proceed, proceed with changes (eyes open, sitting, shorter, quieter, rattle instead of drum, secular framing), defer until stable, or do not use. Defer for active psychosis, mania, acute suicidality or unstabilised PTSD; get medical advice for seizure disorders [synthesis consistent with the sources above].
Example language (illustrative): "Some people find steady drumming intense or disorienting, so I'd like to check a few health and history questions first."
Watch for: Unusual beliefs about spirits that go beyond what the client's own culture shares, a history of losing touch with reality, or wanting the journey to reveal "hidden" abuse. Any of these is a reason to pause [synthesis].

4.2 Informed consent and choosing a framing

Purpose / when: After screening, before the first journey.
Steps:
1. Explain the method: steady drumming for a set time, eyes covered, imagined travel, a fast callback signal, then recording and discussion [source: FSS Shamanic Drumming page].
2. Explain the framing. FSS teaches it as contact with helping spirits in other worlds. Researchers describe it as imagery under repetitive drumming. Let the client choose the language they are comfortable with. FSS's ethics require the client to understand what shamanic work involves, including spirits of the Upper and Lower Worlds [source: FSS Ethical Practice FAQ; Gingras et al. via PsyPost].
3. Name possible effects: vivid imagery, body heaviness, emotion and memories, unsettled beliefs [source: GoodTherapy; Gingras et al.; Bagshaw].
4. Agree on a stop signal (for example a raised hand), state that touch will not be used, and agree that you, the therapist, can end the drumming at any time [synthesis; no-touch default from Mokelke].
5. Record consent in writing. Make clear this is not a substitute for medical care [source: Mokelke on ordinary-reality consent and referral].
Example language (illustrative): "You can think of what you meet as inner imagery or, if it fits your beliefs, as something more. Either way, you stay in charge, and you can open your eyes at any time."
Watch for: Consent driven by pressure or by hopes of miraculous cure. If so, reset expectations [synthesis].

4.3 Preparing the setting

Purpose / when: At the start of every journey session.
Steps (FSS drumming page):
1. Use a quiet, dim or dark room, and silence phones and devices.
2. The client sits or lies down and covers their eyes with a cloth or bandanna to block light.
3. With a recording, use good headphones at a comfortable volume, not loud enough to cause discomfort.
4. Keep a journal within reach.
Clinical adaptations [synthesis]: Offer a blanket. Let trauma-affected clients keep their eyes open with a soft downward gaze, sit rather than lie, and position themselves nearest the door. For telehealth, check that the client is in a private, safe place, as FSS asks of online participants.
Example language (illustrative): "Get comfortable. Cover your eyes if that feels okay, or just lower your gaze."
Watch for: Drowsiness. FSS advises against journeying when sleepy.

4.4 Setting the intention (question framing)

Purpose / when: Before every journey. FSS: "be clear about your journey intentions" before starting. In HSC, a large share of training goes to practice in "question framing" [source: FSS Shamanic Drumming page; FSS HSC page].
Steps:
1. Agree one intention linked to the therapy goal.
2. HSC's specific rules for framing questions are not public [uncertain]. A workable clinical rule [synthesis]: phrase it as an open request for understanding ("What do I need to know about…", "Show me…"), not a yes/no question, a prediction, a medical query, or a question about other people (FSS limits work to the client's own issue).
3. The client says the intention aloud and writes it down.
Example language (illustrative): "Let's make it one simple question you'd like to hold, something like 'What helps me with the fear before meetings?'"
Watch for: Questions aimed at confirming suspected abuse or diagnosing illness. Reframe them, in line with FSS's no-diagnosis rule [source: Mokelke; synthesis].

4.5 Sonic driving: drum or rattle

Purpose / when: The induction for each journey. FSS calls shamanic drumming "a safe and effective means of altering consciousness" and says it is "not music" but a support for journeying [source: FSS workshop and drumming pages].
Steps:
1. Keep a steady, monotonous beat of about 5 beats per second on a single-headed frame drum. A rattle at about 5 cycles per second also works [source: FSS Shamanic Drumming page]. GoodTherapy gives 4–7 beats per second [secondary].
2. Choose live drumming or FSS's free 15- or 30-minute recordings by Harner, which include a callback [source: FSS drumming page]. With live drumming, the therapist keeps the beat even and avoids building rhythms or dynamics [synthesis].
3. Begin with 10–15 minutes for first journeys [synthesis]. The research session lasted 20 minutes (Kjellgren & Eriksson).
Example language (illustrative): "The drumming will be very steady and plain. Let it carry you; you don't need to follow it."
Watch for: Breathing, shaking, signs of distress. Lower the volume, switch to the rattle, or stop if the stop signal is given [synthesis].

4.6 Departure point and the journey

Purpose / when: The core of the session.
Steps:
1. Before the drumming starts, the client recalls a real place they know in ordinary life and uses it as the starting point [source: FSS Shamanic Drumming page].
2. In FSS teaching, journeys go to the Lower World (the example on the FSS page) or the Upper World. The FSS public pages do not give the method for entering or travelling between them; it is taught in workshops and in The Way of the Shaman [uncertain].
3. The client holds the intention and observes whatever comes up, through seeing, hearing, body sensation or knowing. Research participants reported visual, auditory and bodily perceptions; meetings with figures, often animals; a choice between taking an active or passive role; and a sense of inner wisdom or guidance [source: Kjellgren & Eriksson 2010 abstract].
4. The therapist stays silent and watches the client [synthesis].
Example language (illustrative), said before the drumming starts: "Picture your starting place clearly, then let the journey unfold however it does. If it gets too much, open your eyes and raise your hand."
Watch for: Some people "see" little and experience more through body sensation or thoughts. Treat this as normal, not as failure [synthesis consistent with the varied perceptions reported by Kjellgren & Eriksson].

4.7 Encounters with helpers and power animals (as FSS teaches them)

Purpose / when: In FSS teaching, participants journey to meet "compassionate helping spirit teachers and power animals". HSC students must already be succeeding at contacting their power animal or teacher on their own [source: FSS workshop pages; FSS HSC page]. That these are spirits is FSS's belief. In secular framing, they are treated as imagery figures [synthesis].
Steps: FSS's method for finding and working with a power animal is not described on the FSS public pages, so it is not reproduced here [uncertain]. Clinical handling [synthesis]: whatever figure appears, invite the client to describe it and its qualities in their own words. Ask what it conveyed. Do not suggest figures, and do not interpret them for the client.
Example language (illustrative), afterwards: "Tell me about the animal you met. What was it like to be near it?"
Watch for: Figures experienced as hostile or intrusive, or the client feeling "possessed" or invaded. See 5.4. FSS frames the spirits as compassionate; reports of malevolent beings call for clinical assessment, not spiritual intervention by the therapist [synthesis].

4.8 Callback and return

Purpose / when: Ending each journey. FSS recordings end with a "fast callback rhythm" to bring the journeyer back to ordinary reality [source: FSS Shamanic Drumming page]. The callback's exact structure is not given on that page [uncertain].
Steps:
1. Give advance notice: tell the client before starting that a fast drumming signal will mark the return [synthesis].
2. Play the callback (a faster beat), then stop.
3. Re-orientation [synthesis]: the client slowly uncovers their eyes, notices the room and their body, moves fingers and feet, and sits up slowly. Ask orienting questions (date, place) if they seem far away.
Example language (illustrative): "Take your time coming back. Feel the chair under you, and open your eyes when you're ready."
Watch for: Lingering spaciness, dizziness, or derealisation lasting past a few minutes. Extend grounding, and do not let the client drive while impaired [synthesis].

4.9 Recording the journey

Purpose / when: Straight after the return. FSS says to keep a journal of experiences. HSC records the client's spoken narration during the journey, which FSS says amplifies the experience and creates an ongoing record [source: FSS drumming page; FSS HSC page].
Steps:
1. Journal option: the client writes or draws the journey in order before discussing it.
2. Narration option (HSC-style): the client describes the journey aloud as it happens, and it is audio-recorded with consent. Add the recording to the therapy record and storage under your confidentiality rules [storage: synthesis].
3. Research option: a free written description after the session, as in Kjellgren & Eriksson (2010).
Example language (illustrative): "Before we talk, jot down everything you remember, in order, even bits that seem unimportant."
Watch for: Narration can deepen the experience. Use it only once the client has completed several journeys calmly [synthesis].

4.10 Harner Shamanic Counseling (HSC) format

Purpose / when: Divination for oneself. The client learns to journey to their own "wise teachers" and get answers to their questions, while an ordinary-reality counsellor gives instruction, orientation and methodological advice [source: FSS HSC page]. FSS calls it a spiritual, not psychological, system and does not require counsellors to be psychotherapists.
Steps (as published):
1. The client frames a question with the counsellor's help.
2. Recorded drumming ("electronically provided sonic driving") alters the client's state.
3. The client journeys and narrates aloud; the session is recorded.
4. Shamanic interpretation follows. Its method is not public [uncertain].
- In training, participants take both the client and counsellor roles over five days.
Clinical use [synthesis]: A psychotherapist should not present their work as HSC without completing the FSS course. FSS limits use of the Harner name to graduates and needs Sandra Harner's written approval to teach it. In therapy, keep the counsellor role non-directive: clarify, reflect, and link answers back to the client's goals.
Example language (illustrative): "What did the teacher show you about your question? What do you make of it?"
Watch for: The client handing major decisions over to journey answers. See 5.5.

4.11 Group sharing and small-group discussion

Purpose / when: The basic FSS workshop includes group sharing and small-group discussion after practice journeys [source: FSS Way of the Shaman page].
Steps [synthesis]: Sharing is voluntary. Each person speaks without interruption, no one interprets anyone else's journey, and agreed confidentiality applies. The facilitator watches for anyone who is distressed or withdrawn.
Example language (illustrative): "Share only what you'd like to. We'll listen without commenting on each other's journeys."
Watch for: Comparison or competition ("my animal is more powerful"), and pressure to have dramatic experiences.

4.12 Relaxation-framed drumming (secular variant)

Purpose / when: For clients who do not want spiritual framing, or as a first step. In Gingras et al. (2014), 39 students with no journeying experience lay down for about 15 minutes of either a recorded Harner drumming track (about 4.2 beats per second) or instrumental meditation music, with either shamanic-journey instructions (imagine finding an opening in the ground; return at the rattle callback) or plain relaxation instructions. Cortisol and quietude changed similarly in all four groups. With drumming, journey instructions more often produced body heaviness (9 of 10 vs 3 of 8), a self-reported slower heart rate (9 of 10 vs 2 of 8) and dreamlike experiences (10 of 10 vs 2 of 8); no adverse experiences were reported [source: Gingras et al. 2014, PLOS ONE 9(7): e102103]. The authors called the findings "far from conclusive" [source: PsyPost summary].
Steps: Use the same setting and drumming as above, but with relaxation instructions instead of journey instructions ("let the sound settle you"). No travel or helper framing.
Example language (illustrative): "Just let the steady beat hold your attention. Whenever your mind wanders, come back to the sound."
Watch for: Spontaneous imagery can still appear; process it in the same way.

4.13 Integration session

Purpose / when: After every journey, in the same session; schedule a follow-up session after intense journeys. Integration means discussing the experience, picking out insights and planning how to use them [source: GoodTherapy].
Steps [synthesis]:
1. Have the client retell the journey from the journal.
2. Ask what stood out (images, feelings, body sensations) and what it meant to them.
3. Link it to the original intention and the therapy goals.
4. Agree one small ordinary-life action or reflection.
5. Check current state and any risk before the client leaves.
Example language (illustrative): "If the message from today's journey were one small thing to try this week, what would it be?"
Watch for: Insights that encourage dropping medical treatment, cutting ties with people, or other drastic action. Slow things down and test them against the client's values in ordinary reality.

4.14 Practices named in sources but outside a psychotherapist's role

FSS advanced training teaches shamanic healing methods. GoodTherapy describes neo-shamanic practices such as "de-possession, dismemberment, and soul retrieval" being blended with Gestalt and hypnosis [source: FSS pages; GoodTherapy]. These are spiritual-healing practices in their own traditions, taught by those traditions' trainers. They are not described here, and a psychotherapist should not carry them out on clients under a therapy licence [synthesis]. If a client wants them, discuss the referral, and check practitioners against FSS's own ethics (consent, no diagnosis, no exploitation, referral to medical care).
Indigenous ceremonies. If a client takes part in an Indigenous community's ceremony, the clinician supports, respects and helps integrate the experience. Questions about the ceremony belong to the community's own knowledge holders and Elders, and the clinician does not reproduce or run ceremony. Kraus (2012) points readers to local Indigenous organisations, such as Native Friendship Centres in Canada, for accurate information [source: Kraus, rabble.ca]. See Domain XI.
Ceremonies involving substances or heat (for example plant medicines or commercial "sweat lodge" events): the clinician's role is harm reduction and integration, never facilitation. Kraus cites the 2009 Sedona deaths at James Arthur Ray's sweat lodge as a warning about commercialised, culturally appropriated ceremony [source: Kraus, rabble.ca]. Substance-based practices are covered in other Domain VII entries.

5. Handling problems

FSS's public pages do not cover clinical problems. Unless a tag says otherwise, everything below is [synthesis], built on the sources' named risks.

Documented adverse effects to expect. Kjellgren & Eriksson (2010) reported few negative effects but did not describe them. GoodTherapy lists emotional distress, cognitive difficulties, physical discomfort and, in intensive settings, severe reactions. A practitioner page (Bagshaw) lists strong or difficult emotions, memories, challenged beliefs and adverse experiences. Gingras et al. reported no adverse experiences; body heaviness and dreamlike states were common with journey instructions [source: Gingras et al. 2014, PLOS ONE]. Beyond that small single-session study, the sources give no frequency data [uncertain].

5.1 "Nothing happens" or a stuck client

Normalise it: experience can be bodily, auditory or a sense of knowing, not only visual (Kjellgren & Eriksson found varied perceptual types).
Check basics: sleepiness (FSS says don't journey tired), volume, the clarity of the intention, and performance pressure.
Shorten the journey, simplify the intention, or use the relaxation-framed variant (4.12).
If repeated attempts give nothing useful, stop. The method is optional, and other imagery methods may suit the client better.

5.2 Resistance and value conflicts

If the spirit framing clashes with the client's faith or scepticism, offer the secular framing. Never press a worldview on the client: FSS's teachings are attributed to FSS, not presented as fact.
If resistance reflects a fear of losing control, give more control: eyes open, a seated position, a short trial, and a clear stop signal.

5.3 Overwhelm, abreaction or traumatic re-experiencing

Stop or soften the drumming, use the callback early, and ground the client (feet on floor, eyes open, name objects in the room, slow breathing out).
Do not push the client back into the journey in the same session. Switch to stabilisation.
Afterwards, review the screening. Unstabilised trauma and recent trauma are named cautions (Bagshaw). Consider returning to a phase-based trauma approach before any further journeys.
If drumming itself is a trauma trigger, stop using it.

5.4 Psychotic-like, dissociative or "possession" experiences

Active psychosis and severe dissociation are named exclusions (GoodTherapy). If voices, paranoia, persistent depersonalisation or derealisation, or beliefs about being invaded or possessed persist after the session, assess the client's mental state and risk. Arrange psychiatric review where indicated, and suspend journeying.
Do not perform "de-possession" or any other spiritual remedy. If the client wants spiritual help, refer them to a leader of their own faith community.
Seizure-like events: follow first aid and emergency procedures, and seek medical review. Sound-induced epilepsy is a named caution (Bagshaw).

5.5 Over-reliance on journey answers; non-adherence to treatment

If the client wants journey answers to decide medication, diagnoses, legal matters or relationships, restate the boundary FSS itself sets: no diagnosis or medical or legal advice from shamanic work, and referral to trained professionals [source: Mokelke].
Treat journey content as one source of reflection, tested against ordinary-life evidence and values.
If a client stops prescribed treatment because of a journey or an outside practitioner, address it directly, liaise with the prescriber with consent, and record it.
Missed journals or home practice: FSS itself says to keep a journal, but making home journeys compulsory is not advised. Agree whether the client will practise between sessions at all, and keep any home practice short and only for clients screened as low-risk.

5.6 Ruptures and boundary problems

If the client feels the therapist steered or interpreted their imagery, acknowledge it and return interpretation to the client (in HSC, the client is the interpreter).
If the client attributes special powers to the therapist ("you're my shaman"), clarify your role. Exploiting students or clients, including through sexual relationships, is barred under FSS's own guidelines [source: FSS Ethical Practice FAQ]. Professional codes apply as well.
Touch: none without prior agreement [source: Mokelke].

5.7 Cultural appropriation and Indigenous critiques

Documented Indigenous critique. On 10 June 1993, Lakota Summit V passed the Declaration of War Against Exploiters of Lakota Spirituality, endorsed by Lakota, Dakota and Nakota nations in the US and Canada. It condemns non-Indian "wannabes", hucksters and cultists, and "self-styled 'New Age shamans'" who misrepresent these traditions [source: Kraus 2012, rabble.ca, quoting the Declaration; date and occasion also given by Memorial University of Newfoundland's World Religions resource page] [uncertain: quoted wording from a secondary source].
Kraus argues that "there is no such thing as pan-Indian culture": First Nations, Métis and Inuit beliefs belong to specific territories, and do-it-yourself versions strip away context, protocol and community oversight. She cites critiques of Harner and core shamanism by D. C. Noel, R. J. Wallis and G. Hobson. The article does not say whether these critics are Indigenous [source: Kraus 2012].
FSS's position. Core shamanism does not borrow Indigenous ceremonies. FSS calls these "complex issues" and says it teaches "without resorting to cultural appropriation". Some advanced courses include practices that Indigenous people gave Harner with permission to teach them; FSS says it credits the source [source: FSS, Respect for Indigenous Cultures].
Clinical response. Do not describe a drumming journey as Indigenous or "Native" practice, and do not add feathers, pipes, smudging or songs taken from specific peoples. Answer an Indigenous client's questions about their own traditions by supporting their link to their community's knowledge holders (Domain XI). If a client feels the method appropriates their culture, take that seriously and offer an alternative.

5.8 Regulatory and scope issues

FSS notes that some US and Canadian state and local governments regulate complementary and alternative practices and spiritually oriented "energy medicine" [source: FSS Ethical Practice FAQ]. Check your licensing board's position on adjunct spiritual or experiential methods, your liability cover, and documentation requirements.
Do not advertise "shamanic healing" or "cures" under a psychotherapy licence. FSS itself says its workshops do not treat any condition [source: FSS workshop pages].

Sources

Pages consulted

Books and papers cited

Harner, M. (1980). The Way of the Shaman. Harper & Row.
Harner, M. (2013). Cave and Cosmos: Shamanic Encounters with Another Reality. North Atlantic Books.
Harner, S. Ema's Odyssey: Shamanism for Healing and Spiritual Knowledge. North Atlantic Books.
Gingras, B., Pohler, G., & Fitch, W. T. (2014). Exploring shamanic journeying: Repetitive drumming with shamanic instructions induces specific subjective experiences but no larger cortisol decrease than instrumental meditation music. PLoS One 9(7): e102103.
Lakota Summit V (1993). Declaration of War Against Exploiters of Lakota Spirituality (known only as quoted by Kraus).

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