Dance-movement therapy

1. Introduction

Version followed: the Chacian group approach as its students later systematised it, a circle-based session of warm-up, theme development and closure organised around four core concepts (body action, symbolism, therapeutic movement relationship, rhythmic group activity). These concepts come from Chaiklin and Schmais, "The Chace approach to dance therapy" (1979, in Lewis-Bernstein (ed.), Eight Theoretical Approaches in Dance/Movement Therapy, pp. 15–30; reprinted 1993 in Sandel, Chaiklin and Lohn (eds.), Foundations of Dance/Movement Therapy: The Life and Work of Marian Chace, pp. 75–97). The account draws on the ADTA biography of Chace; on Sharon Chaiklin's own later restatement of the Chace concepts, session frame and therapist skills (Chaiklin 2009, DTAA Quarterly), written by the co-author of the 1979 chapter; on the chapter plan of Bender (2020); and on secondary summaries that cite Chaiklin and Schmais, Levy (1988) and Schmais (1985). Sources: the full citations of these works, the R-DMT and BC-DMT requirements (DMTCB handbooks, 2020 revision), the UK professional frame (ADMP UK, UKCP) and the names of Schmais's eight healing processes (article abstract) come from source pages. The core-concept descriptions now follow Chaiklin (2009). Wording that would come only from the 1979 chapter, the 1993 Foundations volume, Marian Chace: Her Papers (H. Chaiklin ed., 1975) or Levy (1988) is not reproduced and is marked [uncertain]; step-by-step session detail is largely [synthesis].

Marian Chace (1896–1970) trained at the Denishawn School and taught dance in Washington, D.C. She found that her classes drew people who were not aiming to perform, and she shifted her focus to the person dancing rather than to technique. From 1942 she worked at St. Elizabeths Hospital in Washington, where she offered "Dance for Communication". In 1947 she became its first full-time dance therapist. She later worked at Chestnut Lodge in Rockville, Maryland, and was the first president of the American Dance Therapy Association (1966–68). [source: ADTA Marian Chace Biography; Wikipedia]

Core idea of change: Chace treated dance as a "natural means of communication" and movement as symbolic of the unconscious. She observed each patient's movement closely and reflected it with her own body. She then built on what the patient offered so the patient could own the movement and try out new possibilities. This reflecting was meant to reduce confusion and isolation and to open contact with others. Verbal and nonverbal work flowed into each other. Change depended on the patient's readiness: "only when he is ready for it will it become meaningful to him" (Chace, quoted by ADTA). In groups, shared rhythm and mirroring in a circle build cohesion and a sense of belonging. [source: ADTA Marian Chace Biography; Payne 2019; Manrique 2025]

The approach is a clinical method that a trained dance/movement therapist delivers. It is not a self-help or general-wellbeing dance class. Chace herself held that the therapist must have integrated the art form personally before using it therapeutically. [source: ADTA Marian Chace Biography]

Professional frame. In the US, dance/movement therapy is a master's-level profession credentialed by the ADTA's Dance/Movement Therapy Certification Board (DMTCB), which also monitors continuing education and adherence to the ADTA Code of Ethics. [source: ADTA Become a DMT; ADTA FAQs] R-DMT (entry level): either a master's in DMT from an ADTA-approved programme, or a master's plus required DMT and general coursework (Alternate Route: 27 semester credits / 405 hours of DMT coursework, 19 semester credits / 285 hours of general training including psychology, and five years of concentrated study in at least one dance form). Non-approved-programme and Alternate Route applicants also need 200 hours of fieldwork and a 700-hour internship (at least six months full time; 350 hours of direct client contact, including 150 hours leading DMT sessions; at least two clinical populations) with 70 hours of supervision by a BC-DMT (at least 24 with the same supervisor, at least 10 hours of observed session work, up to 30 hours in group). [source: R-DMT Handbook Rev2020; R-DMT application page] BC-DMT (advanced): hold the R-DMT, then complete 2,400 hours of clinical employment (up to 600 volunteer and 1,800 paid; at least 500 hours delivering DMT). Private-practice hours count only for R-DMTs with a state clinical mental-health licence (up to 1,800 hours, practising as "R-DMT, Board Eligible"). Supervision is at least 50 hours by a BC-DMT (at least 25 with the same supervisor and at least 25 individual or in-session; the handbook's checklist says 48, an inconsistency in the source). The applicant also needs three letters of recommendation and two essays (theoretical framework; session analysis) passed by a BC-DMT panel. Any BC-DMT may supervise internship hours and teach DMT coursework. [source: BC-DMT Handbook Rev2020; BC-DMT FAQs] UK: the professional body is ADMP UK, which registers dance movement psychotherapists (RDMP) after a recognised Masters-level training (Goldsmiths, Roehampton, Derby; two years full time or three part time) and requires at least 1 hour of supervision per 8 clinical hours (1:6 for those working towards UKCP registration). ADMP UK is an organisational member of UKCP (Humanistic and Integrative Psychotherapy College). RDMPs can add UKCP registration, a register accredited by the Professional Standards Authority, which is usually needed for NHS work. [source: ADMP UK Training FAQs; ADMP UK UKCP accreditation; Prospects job profile; Payne and Warnecke 2016] None of these pages describes statutory HCPC regulation of dance movement psychotherapy, and the profession is regulated through ADMP UK and UKCP registration rather than by statute. The HCPC's own scope page is not drawn on [uncertain]. Outside the US and UK, use the national body. A psychotherapist without DMT training should not run Chacian groups as dance/movement therapy or call them that. They can use simple rhythmic or mirroring warm-ups as an adjunct inside their own modality, with the safety steps below, or co-lead with or refer to a credentialed DMT. [synthesis]

2. Framework

Session structure (three parts). Chace's group sessions follow a three-part plan, but the content is not pre-planned: it grows out of the members' movement. [source: Levine 2018, citing Solsvig 2010; Columbia College "A New Way of Doing DMT, Part I"] Bender's German textbook treats session structure, the circle, mirroring, closing (Abschluss) and the role of music as distinct parts of the Chace method. [source: Bender 2020, table of contents]

Phase	Goals	What happens
Warm-up	Gather the group and bring bodies and attention into the room. Assess each member.	Members stand (or sit) in a circle and move freely to a steady beat. The therapist observes movement signals, energy and strength, and how grounded or in contact with reality each person seems. The therapist reflects individual movements and invites the group to take them up. [source: Levine 2018/Solsvig 2010; Payne 2019]
Theme development	Let an emotional or relational theme emerge and work it through symbolically in movement.	Members define and enlarge the movements they made in the warm-up. The therapist names or follows emerging themes (e.g. anger, sadness, connection) and helps the group explore them through movement, imagery and association, so that problems can be worked symbolically "without having to analyze or interpret them". [source: Levine 2018, citing Solsvig 2010 and Shingala 2016; Bender 2020 TOC]
Closure	Contain and integrate the session and mark separation.	The circle re-forms. The group does simple rhythmic movements in unison, which Chace described as producing "a feeling of well-being, relaxation, and good fellowship". Levine (2018) cites this to "Chaiklin et al. 1993", the Sandel, Chaiklin and Lohn volume [uncertain: quoted through a secondary source]. The therapist acknowledges each person. Goodbyes can be a movement, a gesture or a smile, and there may be brief verbal sharing of how each person feels. [source: Levine 2018, citing Sandel et al. 1993 and Koch 2016]

Format. The core format is a group in a circle, usually with music, led by one therapist. It can last all or part of a session. [source: Payne 2019] In Chace's hospital work, groups were open and she also worked individually. [source: ADTA biography] Modern adaptations include half-hour groups for people with Alzheimer's disease in an adult day centre. [source: Pierce-Knapp 2010, abstract]

Session count and length. No standard number of sessions for a Chacian group is published in the sources used [uncertain]. Chace's own hospital groups were open groups (see Format), not fixed-length courses. Published examples vary: half-hour groups for people with Alzheimer's disease [source: Pierce-Knapp 2010, abstract], and a workshop of three 1.5-hour modules [source: Manrique 2025]. UK careers guidance notes that private-practice sessions take about two hours including preparation and note-taking [source: Prospects job profile]. Before starting, the leader should decide: open or closed group; name; time, dates, venue and duration; ground rules; group size; population needs; referral criteria and pre-group interview; information sheets; schedule; and music and props. [source: Payne 2019] A workable default is 45–60 minutes for adult inpatient or outpatient groups and 20–30 minutes for frail older adults or children, with a stable weekly or more frequent rhythm [synthesis].

Moving between phases (within a session). The sources describe the sequence but not explicit criteria [uncertain]. Practical markers [synthesis]:

Warm-up → theme: most members are moving with some energy and shared beat, eye contact or spatial awareness is increasing, and a recurring movement quality, image or interaction has appeared that the group can take up.
Theme → closure: allow enough time to wind down (roughly the last quarter of the session). Move earlier if arousal is rising beyond what the group can hold, someone is becoming disorganised or dissociated, or the theme has reached a natural resolution.
Closure is never skipped, even in a shortened session.

Across sessions. Cohesion is expected to develop from individuals moving in their own way towards a "we" feeling and synchrony. Formations can range from alone to dyads, triads and the whole group. [source: Payne 2019] Gradually widening formations and themes as trust grows is a reasonable progression [synthesis].

3. Guiding principles

The four core concepts come from Chaiklin and Schmais, "The Chace approach to dance therapy" (1979; reprinted 1993). In her 2009 article Sharon Chaiklin restates them as the therapeutic relationship, the body, symbolic movement and rhythmic group movement, and presents them as processes to be developed and deepened over time rather than a fixed set of techniques. The descriptions below paraphrase that article; the practical meanings are the writer's [synthesis]. The exact 1979 definitions are not reproduced here [uncertain]. [source: Chaiklin 2009; Bender 2020 TOC: Körperaktion, Symbolbildung, therapeutische Bewegungsbeziehung, rhythmische Aktivität]

Body action. Chace attended to the messages the body carries: posture, gesture, memory, body image and body boundaries. Change happens through the actual moving body, not talk about it. [source: Chaiklin 2009] Practical meaning: get people moving, however small the movement, and notice posture and boundaries before expecting insight.
Symbolism. Symbolic movement covers imagery and creativity arising between ego functions and the unconscious. It includes expression that is never put into words and movement that the group comes to share as meaningful. [source: Chaiklin 2009; ADTA biography; Levine 2018] Practical meaning: follow and amplify images without forced interpretation, and let the person name meaning if they wish.
Therapeutic movement relationship. The therapist offers a neutral, consistent and nurturing presence that is also challenging. Chaiklin names four elements that build trust and the potential for change: structure (music, movement interventions and verbal suggestions that give physical and psychological safety, direction and group norms); security (explorations are accepted and understood, never used to shame or embarrass); support (helping people take risks in movement and get past self-censoring); and the self as role model (the therapist's own feelings, energy, memory and observations, so that the therapist's presence is itself an intervention). Over time the relationship should move from dependence towards peer relationships. [source: Chaiklin 2009; ADTA biography; Levy 1988 via Levine 2018] Practical meaning: your body is your main intervention, so meet people at their movement level, and keep enough structure that the group feels safe.
Rhythmic group activity. Rhythm helps each person organise themselves and lets members share energy, feeling states and memories, which builds cohesion. Group work also has to allow for cultural differences and uses group dynamics in working with resistance, transference and transitions. [source: Chaiklin 2009; Payne 2019; Levine 2018] Practical meaning: use a steady beat and unison rhythm to gather the group and to close. Therapist skills. Chaiklin lists the skills that carry the work through the warm-up, the development of themes and the closure, in individual sessions as well as groups: picking up moods, tensions, communications and themes; enlarging, clarifying, questioning, focusing and organising what emerges; initiating, responding, bridging and containing; using voice and words; deciding whether or not to use touch; and timing and kinesthetic empathy. [source: Chaiklin 2009] Practical meaning: use the list to plan a session and, afterwards, to review which skill each moment called for [synthesis].
Dance as communication. Every movement is treated as a message. Practical meaning: respond to a gesture as you would to a sentence. [source: ADTA biography; Bender 2020 TOC 11.7.2]
Kinesthetic empathy. The therapist feels into another's movement through their own body, and this is basic to the process. Practical meaning: try the person's movement quality in your own body to sense its feeling tone before responding. [source: ADTA biography; Manrique 2025]
Person before technique. The focus is the person dancing, not correct dance. Practical meaning: never correct form, and accept any movement as valid. [source: ADTA biography]
Readiness. Change is meaningful only when the person is ready. Practical meaning: invite, never push, and let refusal stand. [source: ADTA biography]
Verbal and nonverbal integration. Words and movement flow into one another. Practical meaning: let words arise from movement and return to movement, and keep verbalisation short with groups that struggle with words. [source: ADTA biography; Levine 2018]
The circle as container. The circle gives structure, equality, visibility and belonging. Practical meaning: the circle is the default formation and the place to return to. [source: Payne 2019; Levine 2018 (uncited claim); Manrique 2025]
Fluid leadership. Each member can lead and follow, and the therapist shares leadership. Practical meaning: hand the lead to members whenever possible. [source: Manrique 2025; Payne 2019]
Dignity and compassion. Chace's approach offered dignity in institutional settings. Practical meaning: treat even very regressed movement with respect, and never make it a spectacle. [source: ADTA biography]
Healing processes lens. Schmais (1985, "Healing processes in group dance therapy") reviewed curative factors in verbal group therapy and proposed eight healing processes for group dance therapy in general, not only Chacian groups. They are synchrony, expression, rhythm, vitalization, integration, cohesion, education and symbolism, and she discussed each with its movement correlates. Practical meaning: use them as a checklist when reflecting on what a session did. Her definitions of each process are not reproduced here [uncertain]. [source: Springer abstract of Schmais 1985; Payne 2019]
Don't over-read movement. Movement themes should not be assigned too quickly (e.g. reading hand-touching as "connection"). [uncertain: secondary, unverified; source: Columbia College blog, a student critique] Chaiklin's security element, in which explorations are accepted and understood rather than used to shame, points the same way [source: Chaiklin 2009]. Practical meaning: hold interpretations lightly and check them with the person.
Movement is not diagnostic evidence. Movement observation (e.g. Kestenberg shape-flow notes used in research) informs the therapist's responses and progress notes. It is not evidence of abuse or a diagnosis. [source: Pierce-Knapp 2010 abstract for the observation use; the limit is synthesis]

4. Intervention inventory

This inventory covers the procedures named in the sources. Chaiklin (2009) gives the session frame (warm-up, development of themes, closure) and the therapist skills but no scripted steps, and the procedural wording of the 1979 chapter is not reproduced [uncertain]. Step-by-step detail is therefore mostly the writer's operationalisation [synthesis]. All example language is illustrative. Verbatim phrases are quoted and cited.

4.1 Pre-group planning, screening and space setup

Purpose / when: Before the first session of any group. [source: Payne 2019 for the planning items; safety items are synthesis]
Steps:
1. Decide open or closed format, size, duration, venue, ground rules, referral criteria, information sheet, music and props. [source: Payne 2019]
2. Hold a pre-group interview. Ask about mobility, falls history, balance, dizziness, pain, cardiac or respiratory limits, pregnancy, joint replacements, medications that cause sedation or postural drop, hearing (music volume), trauma history relevant to touch, being watched or circles, and cultural or religious limits on touch and mixed-gender movement. Get medical clearance where indicated. [synthesis]
3. Prepare the space. Use a clear, non-slip floor with no rugs, cables or furniture edges in the movement area, and enough room for everyone to extend their arms without contact. Have chairs ready so anyone can join seated, check lighting and temperature, and make sure water is available and exits are visible and unobstructed. Keep music at a comfortable conversational level. [synthesis]
4. Agree ground rules: anyone may sit out or move seated at any time; no touch without asking; confidentiality; stop or slow if pain or dizziness occurs. [synthesis]
5. For children and young people, get parent or carer consent and the child's own assent, follow local safeguarding and mandatory-reporting procedures, keep a second adult or an open-door or visible arrangement, and adapt duration and imagery to age. [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "We'll move together in a circle, mostly to music. You choose how much you do, and sitting is always fine."
Watch for: Unscreened mobility risk, people referred for whom group exposure is premature (acute mania with high arousal, severe disorganisation), and touch-related trauma.

4.2 Forming the circle

Purpose / when: At the start of every session, and as the home formation to return to. The circle gives structure, visibility and belonging, and it supports cohesion and exploring self–other boundaries. [source: Payne 2019; Manrique 2025; Levine 2018]
Steps:
1. Invite members into a standing or seated circle, with yourself as part of it rather than in the centre. [synthesis]
2. Make the circle big enough that no one has to touch. Hand-holding is optional and only offered after asking (see 4.14). [synthesis]
3. Place frail or unsteady members next to a chair or a wall, or seat the whole group. [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "Let's make a circle so we can all see each other. Stand or sit, whatever works today."
Watch for: Members hovering outside the circle. Accept this as participation and make eye contact or reflect their movement from where they are (see 5.1).

4.3 Rhythmic warm-up to a steady beat

Purpose / when: The opening phase. It energises, organises and gathers attention, and lets the therapist observe each person. [source: Levine 2018, citing Solsvig 2010; Payne 2019]
Steps:
1. Start music with a clear, moderate, steady beat. [source: Levine 2018]
2. Begin with simple, safe, whole-body actions such as swaying, stepping in place, shoulder rolls and arm swings, and invite members to move freely to the beat. [source: Levine 2018 for free movement; specific actions synthesis]
3. Observe each person's movement signals, strength and energy, and how grounded and present they seem. [source: Levine 2018, citing Solsvig 2010]
4. Pick up movements members offer and reflect them (4.5), so the warm-up becomes the group's own. [source: Payne 2019]
Variant (not presented as Chace's): One published workshop opened with deep breathing, arm extension and gentle bouncing to connect with gravity before mirroring. [source: Manrique 2025]
Example language (illustrative): "Let's find the beat. Just let something move: a hand, a shoulder, a foot."
Watch for: Breathlessness, dizziness or loss of balance. Lower the tempo or bring the group to seated movement. Watch also for whether the group starts to share the beat, which is a cue that it is ready for theme work.

4.4 Meeting each person: building the therapeutic movement relationship

Purpose / when: Throughout the session, especially in the warm-up. Contact begins at the person's own movement level, and the therapist's presence supplies the structure, security and support described in section 3. [source: ADTA biography (observing and responding to each patient); Chaiklin 2009 (relationship elements); Bender 2020 TOC 11.7.5, 11.7.8]
Steps:
1. Notice one person's movement, however small: a tapping foot, a rocking trunk, a turned-away head.
2. Move towards them in space at a comfortable distance and take up the quality of their movement in your body (4.5).
3. Stay with it long enough for them to notice. Then offer a small variation or wait for them to change it.
4. Move on to the next person so each member is met during the session. [steps synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): Often no words are needed. If you speak: "I'm moving the way you are. Is that okay?"
Watch for: Mutual gaze, the person changing their movement in response to yours, or the person initiating. All of these are signs of contact. Signs that you are too close or too intense include freezing, turning away or increasing agitation. In that case, increase the distance and lower the intensity.

4.5 Empathic reflection (mirroring)

Purpose / when: This is the core relational technique. It reflects a person's movement back so they feel seen and can own it and develop it. Levy (1988, Dance/Movement Therapy: A Healing Art) summarises the nonverbal message as "I understand you, I hear you, and it's okay" [uncertain: quoted through Levine 2018]. In a Chace circle, group mirroring lets each member's movement be "acknowledged and validated" by the whole group (Manrique 2025). [source: ADTA biography; Levine 2018; Payne 2019; Manrique 2025]
Steps:
1. Observe the person's movement: its shape, rhythm, effort (strong or light, quick or sustained) and body part.
2. Reflect its essential quality, not an exact copy. Match timing and intensity, and slightly reduce extremes of distress or agitation. [synthesis; the essence-versus-copy distinction is widely taught, but no Chace-specific source for it is cited here — uncertain]
3. Hold the reflection and watch for a response.
4. If they respond, follow their change. This is the start of a movement dialogue.
Example language (illustrative): "I'm going to try your movement. Tell me if I've got it."
Watch for: Mimicry that feels mocking. Reduce exaggeration and check in. When it is working, the person relaxes, makes eye contact, extends the movement or begins to lead.

4.6 Group mirroring and passing the lead

Purpose / when: In the warm-up and theme development. Each member's movement is validated by the whole group taking it up, which builds cohesion and lets members both lead and follow. [source: Payne 2019; Manrique 2025]
Steps:
1. Reflect one member's movement, then invite the group to join it. [source: Payne 2019]
2. Pass the lead around the circle so each person may offer a movement, and allow a pass. [source: Manrique 2025 for shifting leadership; turn-taking steps synthesis]
3. Optionally let members choose the music. [source: Manrique 2025]
Example language (illustrative): "Let's all try Maria's movement." / "Who'd like to show us the next one? Passing is fine."
Watch for: Members who freeze when put on the spot. Offer a pass or a "mini" movement such as a nod. A member who dominates the lead can be handed a supporting role. When it is working, there are spontaneous offers, laughter and shared timing.

4.7 Building on and expanding movement (developing expressive potential)

Purpose / when: After reflection has established contact. The person develops their movement into new possibilities, which links warm-up to theme. [source: ADTA biography (reflecting and building on movement); Levine 2018 ("define and enlarge" warm-up movements); Bender 2020 TOC 11.7.10]
Steps [synthesis]:
1. Keep the person's core movement and vary one element at a time: size (small to large), tempo, force, level (seated, standing, reaching high), direction, or the body part used.
2. Model the variation and invite them and the group to try it.
3. Return to the original form so the person keeps ownership.
Example language (illustrative): "What if that push got a bit bigger?" / "Can we take that sway all the way across the circle?"
Watch for: Expansion that outpaces readiness, such as stiffening, stopping or losing balance. Go back to the smaller form. When it is working, the person adds their own variations.

4.8 Body action: mobilising the whole body

Purpose / when: For withdrawn, rigid or low-energy members and groups, so that body parts held still or split off join the movement. Body action is one of the four core concepts; in Chaiklin's account it covers posture, gesture, memory, body image and body boundaries. [source: Chaiklin 2009; Bender 2020 TOC 11.7.3] How Chace applied it step by step is [uncertain].
Steps [synthesis]:
1. Notice which parts move and which are held, for example arms moving with the trunk locked.
2. Use simple sequential prompts: shoulders, then spine, then hips and legs.
3. Offer actions with clear effort qualities such as pushing, reaching, shaking or stamping, kept within safe range.
4. Return to rest positions between bursts.
Example language (illustrative): "Let the movement travel down into your back... now into your knees."
Watch for: Pain and breathlessness. Strong actions such as stamping or pushing can release anger, so pair them with a clear container (4.11, 4.13).

4.9 Theme development through symbolism, imagery and association

Purpose / when: The middle phase, once the group shares a movement vocabulary. Emotional themes (e.g. anger, sadness, connection) are worked through symbolically in movement, "without having to analyze or interpret them". [source: Levine 2018, citing Shingala 2016; Bender 2020 TOC 11.7.4, 11.7.11; ADTA biography]
Steps (the skills used — picking up a theme, then enlarging, clarifying, focusing, bridging and containing it — are named in Chaiklin 2009; the sequence is synthesis):
1. Notice a recurring quality or interaction, such as repeated pushing, reaching towards the centre or turning away.
2. Name it neutrally in movement or with an image, offered as a question rather than an interpretation.
3. Invite associations: "What does this remind you of?" Let images change the movement, and let the movement change the images.
4. Develop the theme as a group, for example pushing against an imagined wall together, carrying something heavy, or reaching and receiving.
5. Bring the theme to a resolution in movement before closure.
Example language (illustrative): "This looks like we're pushing something away. What is it, if it has a name?" / "It doesn't need words. Let the movement say it."
Watch for: Imposing your own theme. Students of the method warn against assigning meanings too quickly [uncertain: secondary, unverified; source: Columbia College blog]. Also watch for imagery that floods someone with traumatic memory. Shift to concrete, present-time movement (5.3). When it is working, members elaborate the image spontaneously and their affect brightens or softens.

4.10 Rhythmic group activity

Purpose / when: To organise a disorganised group, raise or contain energy, and build cohesion and synchrony. It is one of the four core concepts: rhythm helps each person organise themselves and lets members share energy, feeling states and memories. [source: Chaiklin 2009; Payne 2019; Levine 2018]
Steps:
1. Establish a shared beat with a clear pulse in music, clapping or stepping.
2. Move from individual rhythms towards the group rhythm, letting members' movements attune to the group's. [source: Payne 2019]
3. Vary group formations from individuals to dyads, triads and the whole circle. [source: Payne 2019]
4. Use unison rhythm to contain the group after intense theme work and in closure. [source: Levine 2018, citing Chaiklin et al. 1993]
Example language (illustrative): "Let's find one beat together... step, step, clap."
Watch for: Rhythm imposed too early, which can feel regimented to people who need their own tempo. When it is working, the group moves "as one" (Payne 2019) without strain.

4.11 Integrating verbal and nonverbal work

Purpose / when: Throughout the session, but especially after theme development and in closure. Words and movement flow into each other. [source: ADTA biography; Payne 2019; Levine 2018, citing Koch 2016]
Steps:
1. Let brief words come during movement (a word or sound for a movement) or after it. [synthesis]
2. At the end, invite reflection on how each person feels or what happened. Encourage quieter members and manage those who talk a great deal. Focus on the group theme and keep personal histories confidential. [source: Payne 2019; Levine 2018]
3. For groups with little verbal capacity, keep words minimal and let movement carry the communication. [source: Levine 2018]
Example language (illustrative): "One word for how your body feels right now." / "What did you notice when we were all pushing together?"
Watch for: Talk used to avoid moving, or one member's disclosure pulling the group into individual therapy. Return to the group theme.

4.12 Use of music and props

Purpose / when: Music provides the steady beat for the warm-up and the rhythmic unity of closure. Props can contain and connect. [source: Bender 2020 TOC 11.7.13; Levine 2018; Payne 2019]
Steps:
1. Choose music for its beat and mood. Consider members' cultural and generational preferences and let them choose sometimes. [source: Manrique 2025 for member choice; rest synthesis]
2. Keep the volume moderate and avoid sudden loud tracks, since hearing comfort and startle matter for trauma-exposed and older clients. [synthesis]
3. Props are optional. In one reported example, a parachute served as a holding container for a turbulent group of boys. [source: Levine 2018, citing Hunter 2016; this is not documented as a Chace technique]
Example language (illustrative): "What music would help us get moving today?"
Watch for: Music with charged lyrics or associations. Props can create trip hazards, so tidy them away when they are not in use.

4.13 Closure: return to the circle, unison rhythm and acknowledgement

Purpose / when: At the end of every session, to contain, integrate and separate. [source: Levine 2018, citing Chaiklin et al. 1993 and Koch 2016; Bender 2020 TOC 11.7.12]
Steps:
1. Re-form the circle. [source: Levine 2018]
2. Lead simple rhythmic movements in unison at a calming tempo and with diminishing size. [source: Levine 2018/Chaiklin et al. 1993; tempo detail synthesis]
3. Acknowledge each person by eye contact, name or reflecting their movement once more. [source: Levine 2018/Koch 2016]
4. Invite a goodbye through "a movement, a gesture, or just a smile", and brief verbal sharing if appropriate. [source: Levine 2018/Koch 2016]
5. Ground before leaving with a few slow breaths, standing still and feeling the feet. Check that anyone who became distressed is settled, and arrange follow-up. [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "Let's bring it back to the circle... slower now... Thank you, everyone. One small movement to say goodbye."
Watch for: Members leaving while still aroused or dissociated. Shorten the theme work next time if this recurs.

4.14 Touch: consent and opt-out protocol

Purpose / when: Before any hand-holding in the circle, partner work, or therapist touch such as a supportive hand. Chaiklin (2009) lists the decision whether or not to use touch among the therapist's skills, and Payne (2019) lists touch as a planning consideration; neither gives a protocol, so everything below is [synthesis]. [source: Chaiklin 2009; Payne 2019]
Steps:
1. Default to no touch. Offer alternatives that give the same connection without contact, such as holding a scarf, rope or parachute edge between people, palms near but not touching, or eye contact.
2. Ask each time, every session, in front of the group so declining is normal: "Would you like to hold hands, or hold the scarf, or neither?"
3. Make opting out easy and non-verbal, for example by agreeing that hands at your sides means no touch today. Never make a member explain a no.
4. Limit any therapist touch to hands, forearms, upper back and shoulders, always announced and with permission. Never touch the chest, buttocks, groin, genitals or inner thigh, and never touch in a sexual way. Never lift or manually guide a person's body into a position.
5. Respect cultural and religious norms about cross-gender contact, and pair people by preference.
6. With trauma survivors, assume touch, being approached from behind, and closed-eye or closed-circle formations may be triggers until you know otherwise. Keep eyes open and exits visible.
7. With children, keep any touch minimal, public and in line with local safeguarding policy, and record it if policy requires.
Example language (illustrative): "Touch is always optional here. You can change your mind any moment, just drop your hand."
Watch for: Compliance without consent, such as freezing, a fixed smile, or a hand held limply. Release contact and offer the alternative. Watch also for a member who seeks touch insistently. Hold the boundary warmly.

4.15 Movement observation and documentation

Purpose / when: To track each member's engagement and change across sessions and to plan. The therapist observes movement signals, strength and grounding in the warm-up, and research adaptations have used Kestenberg shape-flow notation with session journals. [source: Levine 2018/Solsvig 2010; Pierce-Knapp 2010 abstract]
Steps [synthesis]:
1. After each session, note for each member their level of participation, initiation versus following, eye contact, posture (open or closed), range and effort, rhythm sharing, affect, and any risk events.
2. Note the group theme and how it resolved.
3. Use formal systems such as Laban Movement Analysis or the Kestenberg Movement Profile only if trained in them.
Watch for: Over-reading. Movement observations describe engagement and change. They are not evidence of abuse, trauma history or diagnosis, and should not be reported as such.

4.16 Adapting the Chace circle for older adults and people with dementia

Purpose / when: Mirroring within a Chacian group has been used to build and sustain the therapeutic relationship with people with Alzheimer's disease. Themes reported were group cohesion, shared movement and expression of feelings, with more open postures and brighter affect. [source: Pierce-Knapp 2010 abstract]
Steps [synthesis, except duration]:
1. Run a seated circle with sturdy armchairs and keep sessions to about 30 minutes, the length used in the cited study.
2. Use familiar music from members' youth and simple, repeated movements.
3. Mirror each person individually (4.5) and greet and say goodbye to each one by name.
4. Keep any standing movement next to a chair and have staff present for anyone at risk of falling.
Example language (illustrative): "Good morning, Rose. Let's do your wave together."
Watch for: Fatigue, postural dizziness on standing, and distress from unfamiliar music.

4.17 Individual sessions

Purpose / when: Chace also worked with individual patients, for example at Chestnut Lodge. [source: ADTA biography] Individual Chace-style work uses the same sequence without the group circle. [synthesis]
Steps [synthesis]: Warm up to a beat or the person's own rhythm. Reflect and build a movement dialogue (4.4, 4.5, 4.7). Follow emerging images (4.9). Close with shared slowing and brief talk.
Watch for: One-to-one closeness can feel more intense than a group, so keep more physical distance and touch even more sparingly.

4.18 Performance and theatrical productions (historical)

Purpose / when: Chace produced annual theatrical productions with patients at St. Elizabeths, including one about Dorothea Dix that was filmed for television. [source: ADTA biography] How these were structured clinically is not documented in the sources used [uncertain].
Guidance [synthesis]: Any public showing today needs fresh, specific consent, the option to withdraw up to curtain time, no filming without separate consent, and attention to stigma and confidentiality. It is an optional extension, not part of routine Chacian groups.

5. Handling problems

The sources give principles (readiness, no forcing, reflecting before expanding, containment through rhythm and circle), and Chaiklin (2009) notes that group dynamics are used in working with resistance, transference and transitions, but they give few problem-specific procedures. Most responses below are [synthesis] built on those principles.

5.1 Withdrawn or non-moving member (stuck). Readiness comes first: change becomes meaningful only when the person is ready. [source: ADTA biography] Count sitting, watching or a tapping finger as participation. Reflect the smallest movement they make (4.4, 4.5) from a respectful distance. Offer a seated role or let them choose the music. Do not call them into the centre. Track whether they turn towards the group, make eye contact, or join the closing unison. These are often the first signs of change. [synthesis]

5.2 Refusal, resistance or mocking the activity. Never insist. Name choice openly: "Watching is a way of taking part." Make the movement more adult and less "dancey" by using functional actions (stretching, pushing, walking) and the members' own music. Hand the lead to a sceptical member, since being followed often turns opposition into ownership (4.6). If mocking targets another member, stop and restate the group agreement. [synthesis]

5.3 Overwhelm, flooding, dissociation or retraumatisation. Signs include a glazed look, freezing, rapid breathing, crying that escalates, sudden exit, or disorganised movement. Respond as follows. (1) Lower the intensity for the whole group: slow the tempo, make movements smaller and come back to the circle and unison rhythm (4.10, 4.13). (2) Orient the person to the present with open eyes, feet on the floor, naming three things in the room, and a seat if needed. (3) Have a co-leader or staff member check on anyone who leaves, never leave them alone if risk is suspected, and follow local risk procedures. (4) Debrief individually after the session and adjust: less symbolic imagery, more concrete rhythm and structure. Strong effort actions and imagery (4.8, 4.9) and closed-eye work carry the highest risk. Introduce them only after trust is established and with clear opt-outs. [synthesis]

5.4 Over-arousal, mania or aggression. Contain with clear, steady rhythm and simple unison movement. Direct strong energy into structured, non-contact actions such as pushing the floor or stamping in time, then wind down. Increase the space between people, remove props, and stop the session if safety cannot be held. Screen out people with acute high arousal if the group cannot hold them (4.1). [synthesis]

5.5 Falls, injury and medical events. Prevent falls through screening, a clear and non-slip space, chairs within reach, seated options, slow transitions from floor to standing, and avoiding spinning, fast direction changes and eyes-closed movement for unsteady members. If someone falls, stop the group, don't lift them, assess them or call help per local protocol, and keep the group settled with the co-leader. Record the incident. Stop any member's movement at chest pain, severe breathlessness, dizziness or new pain. [synthesis]

5.6 Unwanted touch or boundary violations between members. Pause, restate the touch rules (4.14) and offer non-contact alternatives. Speak with the members involved privately. Any sexualised touch ends the activity and follows safeguarding and incident procedures. [synthesis]

5.7 Non-attendance and drop-out. In open groups, expect turnover and give each session a complete warm-up, theme and closure arc. In closed groups, review attendance barriers (timing, mobility, embarrassment) and offer a pre-group taster or seated participation. [synthesis]

5.8 Ruptures with the therapist. Watch for mirroring experienced as mocking, a theme imposed by the therapist (the method has been criticised for assigning meanings too quickly [uncertain: secondary, unverified; source: Columbia College blog]), or a member feeling ignored. Acknowledge it simply, return the lead to the member, and check meaning rather than interpreting: "I may have read that wrong. What was it like for you?" [synthesis]

5.9 Group domination and verbal imbalance. Encourage quieter members, manage those who talk a lot, keep the focus on group themes, and protect confidentiality. [source: Payne 2019] In movement, rotate the lead and use whole-group unison to rebalance. [synthesis]

5.10 Cultural fit. Dance carries cultural, religious and gender meanings. Ask about these at screening, adapt the music and the gender composition of pairs, and treat non-participation for religious reasons as a valid choice. [synthesis]

5.11 Children and young people. Follow safeguarding and mandatory-reporting duties if a disclosure occurs or there are concerns. A disclosure made through movement or play is reported as what the child said or did, not as an interpretation of their movement. Get parent or carer consent and the child's assent. Use shorter phases and more concrete imagery and games. Use props such as a parachute as containers (4.12). Keep any touch minimal and in line with policy. [synthesis]

5.12 Working outside your training. If you are not a credentialed DMT and the work moves into deep symbolic material, severe regression or trauma processing, keep to structured rhythmic and mirroring warm-ups. Refer to or co-work with an R-DMT or BC-DMT (US), an ADMP UK registered dance movement psychotherapist (RDMP), or the national equivalent. [synthesis; credential facts from the DMTCB handbooks and ADMP UK]

Sources

Web pages:

Books and papers cited (bibliographic details verified against the pages above; their content is cited through Chaiklin 2009 or the secondary sources above unless stated):

Chaiklin, S., and Schmais, C. (1979). The Chace approach to dance therapy. In P. Lewis-Bernstein (Ed.), Eight Theoretical Approaches in Dance/Movement Therapy (pp. 15–30). Kendall/Hunt. Reprinted (1993) in Sandel, Chaiklin and Lohn (Eds.), pp. 75–97. [uncertain: exact wording not reproduced; concepts cited through Chaiklin 2009]
Sandel, S. L., Chaiklin, S., and Lohn, A. (Eds.) (1993). Foundations of Dance/Movement Therapy: The Life and Work of Marian Chace. Columbia (MD): Marian Chace Memorial Fund of the American Dance Therapy Association. (Secondary sources cite it as "Chaiklin et al. 1993". It is not the 1975 volume below.)
Chaiklin, H. (Ed.) (1975). Marian Chace: Her Papers. American Dance Therapy Association. Includes Chace's "Rhythm in movement as used in St. Elizabeths Hospital" (first published 1945 in Moreno (Ed.), Group Psychotherapy: A Symposium).
Levy, F. J. (1988). Dance/Movement Therapy: A Healing Art. Reston (VA): National Dance Association, American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance. Catalogues also list a revised second edition [uncertain: year].
Schmais, C. (1985). Healing processes in group dance therapy. American Journal of Dance Therapy, 8, 17–36. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02251439 (abstract only).
Bender, S. (2020). Grundlagen der Tanztherapie: Geschichte, Menschenbild, Methoden. Gießen: Psychosozial-Verlag (chapter 11.7, "Die Chace-Methode"; table of contents only).

← Previous · VIII-083Chinese five-tone music therapy Next · VIII-085 →Trudi Schoop's dance therapy