Filial therapy

1. Introduction

Version followed: the Guerney filial therapy model (Bernard G. Guerney Jr. and Louise F. Guerney, developed from the late 1950s; first described in print by B. G. Guerney, 1964, Journal of Consulting Psychology, 28(4), 303-310) as taught today through Risë VanFleet's individual-family format (VanFleet, Filial Therapy: Strengthening Parent-Child Relationships Through Play, Professional Resource Press: 1st ed. 1994, 2nd ed. 2005, further edition 2014; this guide follows the 2005 edition as reported by secondary sources) and Barry Ginsberg's 10-session outline (Ginsberg, 1997, as summarised in Ginsberg, 2012). Louise Guerney's 20-week Group Filial Therapy (Guerney & Ryan, 2013) is noted where it differs. Landreth and Bratton's 10-session Child-Parent Relationship Therapy (CPRT) is a separate derived model: see tab 159. The underlying child-centred play therapy skills and stance are covered in tab 157 and are not repeated here. [source: Ginsberg 2012; Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006; GoodTherapy, Guerneys profile; Wikipedia, Filial therapy; CUHK 2023 workshop page (1950s origin); Schumann 2002 ERIC Digest and HKSYU catalogue record (editions)]

Source note: the bibliographic details of Guerney 1964, L. Guerney 2000, VanFleet & Guerney 2003 and the VanFleet manual editions follow the reference lists of Ginsberg 2012, Ray 1995, Zubir et al. 2019 and Schumann 2002 and a library catalogue; the original group format (6-8 parents) and the 6-18-month length of the original training groups are reported in two secondary sources. [uncertain: the content of the 1964 paper and of VanFleet's manual, including the exact limit-setting rule and the certification requirements, is given as reported by secondary sources]

Filial therapy is a family therapy in which the therapist trains and supervises parents to hold special, non-directive, child-centred play sessions with their own children, typically aged about 3 to 12. The parent, not the therapist, is the main therapeutic agent. The therapist first demonstrates the play sessions, teaches four skills, supervises the parent's sessions with the child, then moves the sessions into the home and finally helps the parent use the skills in everyday life. [source: GoodTherapy; Ginsberg 2012; Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006; CUHK course outline 2025]

How change happens: the child gets a protected, accepting, predictable space with the parent in which to express feelings and work through concerns in play, as in child-centred play therapy (Axline, Rogers). Because the accepting adult is the parent, the gains are located in the parent-child relationship itself: the child feels understood by the parent, and the parent understands the child better, gains confidence and becomes more accepting, with lower parenting stress. Discussion of play themes and of the parent's own reactions then carries this understanding into family life. [source: Ginsberg 2012; Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006; VanFleet handbook description, NJARCH] Related family-of-origin work: the Guerneys also developed Relationship Enhancement (RE) for couples and families; Louise Guerney was Director of Play and Filial Family Training at the National Institute of Relationship Enhancement (NIRE). [source: GoodTherapy]

Professional frame and training. Filial therapy is a specialist method built on child-centred play therapy. Course prerequisites at a current VanFleet-based training are intensive training in child-centred play therapy plus solid supervised experience of it; Ginsberg likewise says therapists should be skilled in child-centred play therapy, ideally having practised it with children, and should know child development, parenting, family dynamics and group leadership. Do not offer filial therapy without that grounding and without specific filial training and supervision. [source: CUHK course outline 2025; Ginsberg 2012]

Training bodies named in the sources: the National Institute of Relationship Enhancement (NIRE), the Guerneys' institute; the Family Enhancement and Play Therapy Center, Inc. (Boiling Springs, Pennsylvania; founder and president Risë VanFleet); the International Institute of Filial Therapy Professional Education (IIFTPE), which governs the content of current VanFleet-model courses; and the Association for Filial and Relationship Enhancement Methods, which gives the Bernard G. and Louise F. Guerney Award. [source: GoodTherapy; Academia profile of R. VanFleet; CUHK course outline 2025]
Credentials named: Certified Filial Therapist, Certified Filial Therapy Supervisor and Certified Filial Therapy Instructor (held by VanFleet and by CUHK trainers); Registered Play Therapist and Registered Play Therapist-Supervisor (RPT, RPT-S) through the US Association for Play Therapy (APT), of which Louise Guerney was a founding member. VanFleet herself is listed as PhD, licensed psychologist (Pennsylvania) and RPT-S. APT-approved providers grant play-therapy contact hours for filial courses (e.g. 6 hours for a one-day CUHK introduction; 12 hours for a two-day VanFleet workshop teaching the four skills by the mock play session method), and such courses are open only to mental health professionals who already have child-centred play therapy training. [source: Academia profile; CUHK course outlines 2023, 2025; Colorado APT 2024 conference brochure; GoodTherapy] The steps to VanFleet-model certification (number of supervised cases, recordings, hours) are not published in the sources drawn on; obtain them from the Family Enhancement and Play Therapy Center or an IIFTPE-recognised instructor. [uncertain]
UK route: Play Therapy UK (PTUK) offers a one-year Post Qualifying Certificate in Filial Play Coaching (4 course days plus a follow-up day a year later). Entry requires a PTUK therapeutic play certificate or play therapy diploma, non-directive clinical experience with children, an enhanced DBS or equivalent check and PTUK membership. Completion requires 40 hours of filial coaching with session logs, a 40-entry reflective journal, 8 sessions with a registered Filial Play Supervisor and a case study. Graduates may use the title Filial Play Coach on PTUK's register, which is accredited by the Professional Standards Authority (an accredited register, not statutory regulation). The page does not say whether it follows the Guerney/VanFleet model. [source: PTUK certificate page]
Elsewhere, practise within your own licensed profession (psychologist, counsellor, social worker, family therapist) and your national play-therapy body (e.g. BAPT or PTUK in the UK). Play therapy is not a statutorily regulated title in every country; check locally. [synthesis] [uncertain]

2. Framework

Phases (individual-family model). The secondary sources give near-identical nine-step sequences, attributed to the Guerney/VanFleet model. [source: Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006; Ginsberg 2012]

Assessment / intake. Social, medical, developmental and mental-health history; the presenting problem, the child's development and family dynamics; usually a family play observation. Goal: decide suitability and plan. Move on when filial therapy is judged suitable and safe (see contraindications, section 5).
Orientation and rationale. Explain premise, structure, likely course and what parents commit to; build a collaborative relationship with the whole family. Move on when parents understand and agree to attend and practise.
Demonstration. The therapist plays with each child while the parents watch (two-way mirror, video link, or simply sitting behind a low divider such as bean bags), then explains what they saw. Move on once parents have seen the skills in action.
Skill training. Parents learn the four skills (structuring, empathic listening, child-centred imaginative play, limit setting) through brief teaching and mock play sessions, with prompting, modelling, reinforcement and shaping. Move on when parents can show the skills at a basic level in mock sessions. [uncertain: the sources do not give a numeric competence criterion]
Supervised parent-child sessions. Parents hold play sessions with their child while the therapist watches, followed by feedback and discussion, kept positive and supportive.
Discussion of themes and dynamics. Play themes, the parent's reactions, family dynamics and problem-solving.
Home sessions. Sessions move to the home; parents report regularly (office meetings, recordings, journals; parent support groups are suggested). Move on when home sessions are regular and skills hold up without live supervision.
Generalisation and maintenance. Parents carry the skills into everyday parenting; home sessions continue; periodic office check-ins under direct supervision.
Closing / consulting relationship. Evaluation of progress, follow-up and booster contacts, discharge; the therapist shifts to a consultant role.

Ginsberg's basic 10-session outline (Ginsberg, 1997, pp. 78-84, as summarised in Ginsberg, 2012).

Sessions 1-3: introduce the programme, review principles, model play sessions while parents observe.
Sessions 4-5: parents practise under supervision; in session 5 parents put together a toy kit for home.
Session 6: prepare for home sessions, setting them up to resemble the office sessions.
Session 7: families discuss their first home sessions.
Sessions 8-9: review home sessions; office meetings are spaced further apart so home play becomes routine.
Session 10: plan continued home play, generalisation and follow-up; evaluate outcomes; agree booster or as-needed contact.

Original Guerney group sequence (as described by secondary sources). Screening of parent and child; a training group of six to eight parents of children aged about 3-10, using didactic instruction, demonstration, role-play and group discussion, in which parents' first play sessions are observed and discussed with feedback and no home practice is yet set; home "laboratory" play sessions once the parent's skill is adequate, reported at weekly group meetings for supervision; then generalisation to daily life, targeting one everyday problem behaviour at a time. Home play continues until the child's conflicts appear resolved and the child shows positive feelings (L. & B. Guerney 1985, p. 510, as cited in Ray 1995). [source: Ray 1995, citing B. Guerney 1964, L. Guerney 1983, L. & B. Guerney 1985; Schumann 2002 ERIC Digest, citing B. Guerney 1969 and Guerney, Guerney & Andronico 1966]

Format and dose.

Parent-child play sessions last about 30 minutes, weekly, in a structured setting with few but clearly defined limits; home sessions continue for roughly 6 months to a year or longer, depending on the child's motivation. [source: Ginsberg 2012] Some parents cannot stay emotionally present for even 10-15 minutes at first. [source: Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006] Starting supervised sessions shorter and building to 30 minutes is a reasonable adjustment. [synthesis]
Overall length varies by version, and the spread is explained by which version is meant. The original open-ended Guerney training groups ran six to eighteen months at the therapist's judgement (Schumann 2002 ERIC Digest), which accounts for the 18-month figure for group filial therapy (Mullen, n.d.); the original programme is also described as about 12 months, later shortened to about 5-6 months (L. Guerney, 2000, as cited in Vigrass 2011). Later structured versions are shorter: a 16-week course in one account of VanFleet's individual model (Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006), 3-6 months in a general profile (GoodTherapy), 20 weeks in Louise Guerney's group model (Guerney & Ryan 2013, publisher description), and 10 sessions in Ginsberg's basic programme followed by continued home play (Ginsberg 2012). [source: as named] [uncertain: no single length is fixed in the sources; follow the version you were trained in and set length by progress against the ending criteria in 4.16]
Format: individual families or parent groups (originally six to eight parents per group: Ray 1995; Schumann 2002); Ginsberg reports groups are often more effective, though single families can be served. Groups of parents typically meet about 2 hours with a short break (VanFleet, 1994, as cited in Vigrass 2011). [source: Ginsberg 2012; Vigrass 2011; Ray 1995; Schumann 2002 ERIC Digest]
Setting: a playroom or a clearly bounded play area; observation by two-way mirror or video where available. [source: Ginsberg 2012; Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006]
Who takes part: one or both parents or other primary carers; in Ginsberg's description the therapist demonstrates with each child, implying each child in the family can have sessions with the parent. [source: Ginsberg 2012] CPRT's single "child of focus" belongs to the Landreth model (tab 159).

3. Guiding principles

[source for this section unless marked: Ginsberg 2012; Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006; GoodTherapy; CUHK course outline 2025; VanFleet as cited in Vigrass 2011]

Parents are the primary change agents. Practical meaning: your main client-facing job is coaching parents; you play with the child mainly to demonstrate.
Partnership with parents, not blame. Practical meaning: treat parents as collaborators in family change; invite their knowledge of the child into every discussion. [source: CACPT course outline 2021; Ginsberg 2012]
Child-centred play is the core of the session. Practical meaning: in special play time the parent follows, accepts and reflects; they avoid criticising, praising, questioning, directing, interrupting, teaching or starting activities (Axline's principles; see tab 157). [source: Ginsberg 2012]
Few, clear limits. Practical meaning: limits only for safety, protection of property and a small number of practical rules; aggressive play is allowed, destruction of the room or toys is not. [source: Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006; VanFleet 2005 as cited in Vigrass 2011]
Show before you ask. Practical meaning: parents watch you demonstrate, then practise in mock sessions before they ever play with their child under observation.
Skills are taught educationally, by shaping. Practical meaning: break each skill into small behaviours, prompt, model, reinforce what parents do well and shape the rest step by step. [source: Ginsberg 2012]
Feedback is positive and specific. Practical meaning: begin with what the parent did well and keep corrections few and concrete. [source: Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006] [synthesis: limiting each round to one or two suggestions]
Skills first live inside the session window. Practical meaning: parents use the skills only in special play time at first and do not try to use them all day; generalisation comes later. [source: Hanlon, IAHIP; Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006]
The parent's own feelings matter. Practical meaning: give time after each session to the parent's reactions, worries and family dynamics; ask parents to notice their worries so these do not intrude on the play. [source: Ginsberg 2012; Mullen n.d.]
Play carries meaning. Practical meaning: help parents recognise play themes and link them, tentatively, to the child's daily life, without turning them into diagnoses. [source: CUHK course outline 2025; VanFleet et al. 2010, ch. 6 title]
Gradual handover. Practical meaning: your involvement tapers as parents gain competence; office contacts become spaced out, then consultative. [source: GoodTherapy; Ginsberg 2012]
Suitability is a clinical judgement, not a diagnosis. Practical meaning: decide on fit from the whole family picture, including safety, not from the child's label. [source: Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006]
Therapist competence and conviction. Practical meaning: practise child-centred play yourself before teaching it; model exactly what you teach. Ginsberg treats therapist confidence in the approach as important. [source: Ginsberg 2012]
Child safety comes first. Practical meaning: because home sessions are unsupervised, screen for risk before moving play into the home and keep checking. [source: Vigrass 2011, uncited ethics point] [synthesis]

4. Intervention inventory

The inventory follows the phase order. The four play-session skills are given as the parent learns them; for the therapist's own child-centred responding (tracking, reflection, therapeutic limit setting in the playroom) see tab 157. Example language is illustrative unless quoted with a source.

4.1 Intake, assessment and family play observation

Purpose / when: first contact; decide whether filial therapy fits, whether it is safe, and which carers and children take part. [source: Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006; Ginsberg 2012]
Steps:
1. Take social, medical, developmental and mental-health history of the child and the family's current situation (separation, losses, other services involved). [source: Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006]
2. Observe the family playing together in the playroom for a short period; note how parents follow or lead, warmth, criticism, how limits are handled, and how the child responds. [source: Ginsberg 2012] [synthesis: the observation points]
3. Screen for contraindications and safety risks: abuse by a participating parent, a parent still living with an abuser, parental pathology that directly drives the child's difficulties, parents unable to grasp the skills, strong unwillingness, and child problems beyond what parents can address (see 4.18 and section 5). [source: Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006; Guerney 2000, VanFleet 2005 as cited in Vigrass 2011]
4. Screen for family violence with each adult separately (see 4.18). [synthesis]
5. Obtain parents' informed consent to treatment, observation and any recording; explain confidentiality and its limits, including child-protection reporting (see 4.17). [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "Before we decide on the plan, I'd like to watch you all play together for about fifteen minutes. There's no right way to do it; just play as you would at home."
Watch for: a parent who cannot tolerate the child's lead at all, frank hostility or fear between child and parent, signs of current harm. These shift the plan to individual work, safety planning or referral.

4.2 Orientation and rationale for parents

Purpose / when: after assessment, before any demonstration; parents need to know why play, why them, and what they are committing to. [source: Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006; Ginsberg 2012; CUHK course outline 2025]
Steps:
1. Explain that play is how children express and work through feelings and that the parent will learn to run special play sessions that make that possible.
2. Describe the course: watching you, learning four skills, practising, supervised sessions, then home sessions, then using skills more widely.
3. State the commitment: regular attendance, a weekly 30-minute home session later on, toys set aside, and openness to feedback.
4. Stress that the method builds on the parent's role and does not imply they caused the problem.
5. Check understanding and agreement before moving on. [source: Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006]
Example language (illustrative): "You know your child better than anyone. What I can add is a special way of playing that helps children show what's going on for them. I'll teach you, step by step, and we'll practise until it feels natural."
Watch for: guilt, defensiveness, or hope for a quick fix. Name the timescale honestly.

4.3 Demonstration play sessions

Purpose / when: phase 3; parents see the skills before learning them, and you get a first look at the child's play. [source: Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006; Ginsberg 2012; APA video description, VanFleet 2009]
Steps:
1. Explain to the child, in simple words, that you will have a special play time while the parent watches.
2. Hold a child-centred play session with each child (follow the child, track and reflect, set limits only as needed) while parents watch through a two-way mirror, on a video link, or from behind a low divider in the room.
3. Afterwards, without the child, talk the parents through what you did and why, and ask what they noticed about their child's play.
4. In the American Psychological Association demonstration video, VanFleet plays with an 8-year-old while her mother watches, discusses the play with the mother, then coaches the mother. [source: Woodslane listing of APA video, 2009]
Example language (illustrative): to the child: "Today you and I get to play in here. Mum is going to watch from over there." To the parent afterwards: "Did you notice how I mostly said what she was doing, and only stopped her once, when she aimed at the window?"
Watch for: parents' reactions (surprise at the lack of praise and questions, worry about aggressive play). These become the agenda for skill training.

4.4 Skill 1: Structuring

Purpose / when: marks the special play time off from ordinary life so that the child knows the special freedoms and few limits apply here. [source: Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006; VanFleet 2003, 2005 as cited in Vigrass 2011]
Steps (taught to parents):
1. Use a defined space and the special toys only for these sessions.
2. On entering, make a short opening statement: the child may do almost anything they want here, and the parent will say if something is not allowed. [source: Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006]
3. Keep out distractions (do not answer the phone). [source: Goodwin 2003 as cited in Vigrass 2011]
4. Give a time warning before the end, then a clear ending statement; leave together. [source: VanFleet as cited in Vigrass 2011] [uncertain: the exact warning interval is set out in VanFleet 2005 and is not reported in the secondary sources]
5. Prepare for predictable events: arrival and departure, one bathroom trip, a child wanting to leave early, and clean-up. [source: VanFleet 2003, 2005 as cited in Vigrass 2011] [synthesis: in most child-centred practice the parent, not the child, tidies afterwards, so the child is not pressured to end; confirm in your training version]
Example language: opening, as given by Daneker & Hunter-Lee: "Right now is our special play time." Continue (illustrative): "You can play with the toys in lots of the ways you'd like. If there's something you can't do, I'll tell you." Warning (illustrative): "Sam, we have five more minutes of special play time today." Ending (illustrative): "Our special play time is over for today. We'll have another one next week."
Watch for: parents who add rules in the opening, end abruptly, or stay to argue when the child resists leaving. It is working when the child knows the routine and transitions without long struggles.

4.5 Skill 2: Empathic listening

Purpose / when: throughout the play session; tells the child the parent is paying full attention and understands their actions and feelings. [source: Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006; VanFleet 1994, 2005 as cited in Vigrass 2011]
Steps:
1. Watch the child closely, with full attention on the child.
2. Track: describe aloud what the child is doing, like a sportscaster describing play (VanFleet's image, as cited in Vigrass 2011).
3. Reflect feelings the child shows or expresses, in the parent's own words, briefly and tentatively.
4. Stay with the present moment; do not interpret, praise, question or teach. [source: Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006; Ginsberg 2012]
Example language (illustrative): "You're lining all the cars up." "You really slammed that one down; you look cross." "You did it, you're pleased."
Watch for: the skill often feels awkward at first (Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006); common slips are questions ("What's that?"), praise ("Good job"), teaching ("That's red") and running commentary without feeling. It is working when the child invites the parent's attention, plays longer and shows a wider range of feeling.

4.6 Skill 3: Child-centred imaginative play

Purpose / when: when the child invites the parent into pretend play; lets the child direct the story so their themes, not the parent's, emerge. [source: Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006; VanFleet 1994 as cited in Vigrass 2011]
Steps:
1. Wait to be invited; join only in roles the child assigns. VanFleet's analogy, as cited by Vigrass: the parent is the actor, the child the director; "The child decides whether or not the parent gets a part."
2. Play the role as directed, with feeling, without adding plot, ending the story or making it nicer.
3. When unsure, ask in role, quietly, what to do or say next. [synthesis: a stage whisper is common practice; check your training version]
4. Keep within limits: pretend aggression is allowed with toys, real hurting is not. [source: Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006]
Example language (illustrative): "Oh no, the monster's got me! What do I do now?" (whispered) "What should the baby say?"
Watch for: parents who steer the story toward lessons or happy endings, or who freeze when play is aggressive. It is working when the child develops stories freely and uses the parent in them.

4.7 Skill 4: Limit setting

Purpose / when: only when a limit is about to be or has been broken; gives safety and consistency while keeping the session accepting. Designed to help parents who over-control, under-control or are inconsistent. [source: VanFleet as cited in Goodwin 2003, in Vigrass 2011; Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006]
Steps (VanFleet sequence, as cited in Vigrass 2011):
1. State the limit the first time it is approached or broken: brief, clear and specific. If possible, say what the child can do instead. [synthesis: the redirection]
2. Warn if the child breaks the same limit again: repeat the limit and name the consequence (that the play session will end for today).
3. Enforce if it happens again: end the session in a pleasant but firm voice, leave the play area with the child, and say there will be another session next week.
4. Keep limits few: typical examples are not throwing things at windows or mirrors, no crayons on the walls, one bathroom trip. Parents may also need a small number of personal limits, kept to a minimum. [source: VanFleet 2005, p. 20, as cited in Vigrass 2011]
Example language (illustrative): stating: "Jo, one of the things you can't do is throw blocks at the window. You can throw them at the cushion." Warning: "Jo, remember, you can't throw blocks at the window. If you do it again, special play time will end for today." Enforcing: "Jo, you threw the block at the window again, so special play time is over for today. We'll play again next week."
Watch for: parents who threaten without following through, add many new rules, or end sessions angrily. It is working when limit tests decline and the parent stays calm. [uncertain: Vigrass's summary is internally inconsistent on whether enforcement follows the second or third breach. Ginsberg 2012, Schumann 2002 and the 2024 VanFleet workshop description do not give the count. A thesis appendix that suggests restating a limit up to three times (Ray 1995) draws on a different manual, not the Guerney/VanFleet rule. Follow the three steps above (state, warn, enforce) as given in the manual edition you train with.]

4.8 Mock play sessions

Purpose / when: phase 4; parents practise the four skills on the therapist before trying them with their child. [source: Ginsberg 2012; CUHK course outline 2025]
Steps:
1. Briefly review one or two skills and show a short example (live or on video).
2. Play the child yourself, starting with easy, cooperative play, so the parent can practise structuring and empathic listening.
3. Prompt during practice if needed ("try saying what I'm doing"), and model a better response when the parent is stuck.
4. Gradually add harder material: invitations to imaginative play, aggressive play, a request for praise or a question, then a limit test.
5. After each short run, reinforce what the parent did well, give one concrete suggestion, and repeat. [source: Ginsberg 2012 (prompting, modelling, reinforcement, shaping)] [synthesis: the graded order]
6. In groups, parents practise in pairs and give each other feedback. [source: Foley et al. 2006 and Ginsberg 1997 as cited in Vigrass 2011; Mullen n.d.]
Example language (illustrative): "I'm going to be a four-year-old now, and I'm going to start throwing the soft balls at you. See if you can say what I'm doing and how I seem to feel."
Watch for: parents laughing off the role-play, or freezing at limit tests. Move to supervised sessions when the parent can show each skill at a basic level and is willing to try with the child.

4.9 Supervised parent-child play sessions

Purpose / when: phase 5; the parent runs real play sessions with their child while you observe, so skills can be corrected before sessions move home. [source: Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006; Ginsberg 2012]
Steps:
1. Before the session, agree with the parent one or two skills to focus on.
2. The parent brings the child into the playroom and uses the opening structuring statement; you observe through a mirror, on video or from a quiet corner.
3. Do not intervene during the session except for safety. [synthesis: some trainers give brief live coaching; follow your training version]
4. The parent gives the time warning and ends the session.
5. Someone (a co-worker or the other parent) looks after the child while you meet the parent for feedback (4.10). [synthesis: the logistics]
6. Repeat over several weeks, gradually lengthening sessions toward 30 minutes. [source: Ginsberg 2012 for 30 minutes] [synthesis: the gradual lengthening]
Example language (illustrative): "Today, let's just focus on saying what he's doing. Don't worry about the rest; I'll be watching and we'll talk after."
Watch for: parent anxiety at being watched; a child who plays differently with the parent than with you (expected and useful information).

4.10 Post-session feedback to the parent

Purpose / when: straight after every supervised session (and after mock sessions); builds skill and confidence. Feedback is kept positive and supportive. [source: Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006; CUHK course outline 2025]
Steps:
1. Ask the parent how it felt and what they noticed first.
2. Name specific things they did well, with the exact moment ("When she knocked the tower over you said, 'You knocked it all down'").
3. Offer one or two concrete improvements, phrased as what to try next time, and rehearse the new response briefly.
4. Move to discussion of play themes (4.11) and the parent's reactions (4.12). [source: Ginsberg 2012] [synthesis: the order and the limit of one or two suggestions]
Example language (illustrative): "You stayed with him the whole time, even when he got noisy; that was hard and you did it. One thing to try next week: when he asks 'Is this good?', you could say 'You'd like to know what I think' and let him decide."
Watch for: parents who hear any suggestion as criticism. Increase the ratio of positives and keep suggestions small. It is working when parents start self-correcting and noticing their own slips.

4.11 Discussing play themes

Purpose / when: after feedback, from the demonstration phase onward; helps parents understand what the child may be communicating and how it connects to daily life. [source: CUHK course outline 2025; Ginsberg 2012; NJARCH description of VanFleet 2006 handbook]
Steps:
1. Ask the parent what stood out or repeated in the play.
2. Name possible themes tentatively (e.g. power and control, good versus evil, winning and losing, nurturing, fear and safety, mastery) and ask whether they fit what the parent sees at home. [source for power and control, good versus evil, and winning and losing as common themes: VanFleet, Sywulak & Sniscak 2010, ch. 6, as summarised in Demanchick 2011] [synthesis: the other example themes]
3. Look at themes across several sessions rather than reading meaning into one.
4. Agree what, if anything, the parent might do differently in daily life in response.
Example language (illustrative): "She has been the boss in every game for three weeks. I wonder if being in charge matters a lot to her right now. Does that fit with anything you see at home?"
Watch for: over-interpretation. Play themes are hypotheses to explore with parents, not evidence of abuse or diagnosis (see 4.17).

4.12 Processing parents' reactions and family dynamics

Purpose / when: after sessions and at office meetings; the parent's own feelings (worry, irritation at aggressive play, memories of their own childhood) can block the skills. [source: Ginsberg 2012; Mullen n.d.]
Steps:
1. Invite the parent to say what was hardest for them in the session.
2. Reflect their feelings using the same empathic listening you are teaching. [synthesis]
3. Link reactions to family dynamics and problem-solve practical issues (siblings, the other parent, routines). [source: Ginsberg 2012]
4. Ask parents to notice their worries during sessions and set them aside for the debrief. [source: Ginsberg 2012]
5. If a parent's own difficulties dominate repeatedly, consider separate support or referral. [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "It sounded hard to sit still while he shot the dolls. What went through your mind?"
Watch for: strong personal distress, trauma memories, or conflict between parents. These need their own space.

4.13 Assembling the home toy kit

Purpose / when: before home sessions (Ginsberg's session 5); a set of toys kept only for special play time. [source: Ginsberg 2012]
Steps:
1. Explain the criteria: toys should be safe, appealing and allow a wide range of feelings to be expressed. [source: Ginsberg 2012]
2. Help parents choose a modest set covering different kinds of play, for example family figures or dolls, a few vehicles or animals, toys that allow pretend aggression, art materials, and something for building or messy play. [synthesis: the categories; VanFleet et al. 2010, ch. 4 covers playroom set-up; its contents are not reported here]
3. Check for safety: no sharp or small parts for young children, washable non-toxic art materials, nothing that can cause real injury if thrown. [synthesis]
4. Store the kit away between sessions so it stays special. [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "You don't need to buy anything expensive. We want toys that let her be gentle, angry, scared or in charge."
Watch for: electronic or rule-bound games that limit expression, and kits shared with siblings outside sessions.

4.14 Setting up home sessions

Purpose / when: phase 7 (Ginsberg's session 6); moves play from the office to the home while keeping its structure. [source: Ginsberg 2012; Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006]
Steps:
1. Choose a regular day and time each week, about 30 minutes, when interruptions are unlikely. [source: Ginsberg 2012; Hanlon, IAHIP]
2. Pick a space that can be clearly bounded and protected from damage. [source: Ginsberg 2012; Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006]
3. Plan for siblings, phones, visitors and pets; agree who looks after other children. [synthesis]
4. Make the home session resemble the office sessions: the same opening, skills, warning and ending. [source: Ginsberg 2012]
5. Agree how the parent will report: notes after each session, recordings brought to the office, or a parent support group. [source: Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006]
6. Agree a simple safety rule: if anything happens that worries the parent (injury, disclosure, the parent losing their temper), they stop the session calmly and contact you. [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "Let's pick the time now. What day of the week is calmest? Who will be with the baby?"
Watch for: unrealistic plans; parents who skip from 30 minutes to 'whenever we can'.

4.15 Reviewing and monitoring home sessions

Purpose / when: from the first home session onward; keeps skills accurate without live supervision. [source: Ginsberg 2012; Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006; CUHK course outline 2025]
Steps:
1. At each office meeting, ask for a short account: what the child played, how the parent responded, any limits set, how the parent felt.
2. Where recordings are used, watch a few minutes together and give feedback as in 4.10. [source: Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006 (taping, journaling)]
3. Discuss themes and family changes.
4. Hold periodic directly supervised sessions in the office as a check. [source: Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006]
5. Gradually space office meetings further apart as home sessions become routine. [source: Ginsberg 2012]
Example language (illustrative): "Talk me through Tuesday's session from the start. What did you say when you went in?"
Watch for: drift (questions creeping back, limits not enforced), missed sessions, or a parent who reports only 'fine'. Ask for a recording.

4.16 Generalisation, maintenance and ending

Purpose / when: phases 8-9; parents carry the skills (acceptance, empathic listening, clear limits) into daily parenting, then work moves to a consulting relationship. [source: Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006; Ginsberg 2012; CUHK course outline 2025]
Steps:
1. Choose one daily situation (e.g. bedtime upsets) and plan how the parent will use empathic listening or the limit-setting sequence there. [synthesis: the example]
2. Review attempts at the next meeting.
3. Continue home sessions; Hanlon notes that special play times should continue after the programme to keep gains. [source: Hanlon, IAHIP]
4. Some later-stage parents add other parenting methods such as behaviour management outside the sessions. [source: NJARCH description of VanFleet 2006 handbook] VanFleet's further generalisation skills, as named in her manuals, are not reported in the sources cited. [uncertain]
5. Plan ending: evaluate progress against the presenting problem, agree follow-up and booster contacts, discharge. [source: Ginsberg 2012; Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006]
Example language (illustrative): "When she said 'I hate my brother' at breakfast, what might you say if you used special-play-time listening?"
Watch for: relapse when sessions stop. The original Guerney criterion is that home play continues until the child's conflicts appear resolved and the child shows positive feelings; reported signs of success include less aggression, more independence, closer affiliation with the parent and positive self-statements (L. & B. Guerney 1985, as cited in Ray 1995). [source: Ray 1995] VanFleet's own ending criteria are not reported in the sources cited [uncertain]; a practical working rule is that the presenting problem has eased, home sessions run reliably, and the parent self-corrects. [synthesis]

4.17 Consent, assent, safeguarding and mandatory reporting

Purpose / when: from first contact to discharge; filial therapy puts a parent in a therapeutic role with a child, often unsupervised at home, so child protection must be built in. The filial sources cited say little about this beyond contraindications; most steps below are general child-practice standards. [synthesis] [source for the screening point: Vigrass 2011, ethics section]
Steps:
1. Parent consent: written informed consent from those with parental responsibility for treatment, observation (mirror, video link) and any recording, including how recordings are stored, who sees them and when they are destroyed. Where parents are separated, check who holds parental responsibility and whether the other parent must be informed or consent under local law. [synthesis]
2. Child assent: explain to the child in age-appropriate words what special play time is, that the parent is learning it, and that someone may watch or record. Tell the child they can say if they do not want to play today. Respect clear, repeated refusal and review the plan rather than forcing sessions. [synthesis] Handling a child's wish to leave early is part of the structuring skill (VanFleet as cited in Vigrass 2011).
3. Confidentiality limits: tell parents at the outset that you must act on concerns about harm to a child, and what that would involve. [synthesis]
4. Mandatory reporting: duties differ by jurisdiction and profession (for example, state mandated-reporter laws in the US; statutory safeguarding guidance and local procedures in the UK nations; state and territory mandatory-reporting laws in Australia). Know your local law, your employer's procedure and your designated safeguarding lead before taking cases. [synthesis] [uncertain: general outline, unverified; check current local law]
5. Disclosure in play: if a child discloses harm in your session or a parent reports one from a home session, stop interpreting, listen, record the child's own words, do not question in a leading way, and follow your reporting procedure. Do not use the play itself (themes, aggressive or sexualised play) as evidence of abuse; refer to a forensic or child-protection assessment if concerns arise. [synthesis]
6. Records: note limits set, any injuries, parent responses that worried you, and your actions. [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): to the child: "Mum is learning a special way to play with you. It's your time, and you get to choose what to play. I'll be watching from behind the glass, and we'll record it so Mum and I can learn from it." To parents: "If I ever became worried that a child was being hurt, I'd have to share that, and I'd tell you first unless that would put someone at risk."
Watch for: a child who seems frightened of the parent, a parent who wants to use sessions to question the child about an event, or a parent who wants recordings for court. Each needs a pause and a review.

4.18 Family violence screening and when to stop home sessions

Purpose / when: at intake, before moving sessions home, and whenever new information emerges. The sources cited give contraindications; the screening procedure is synthesis. [source: Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006; Vigrass 2011; Mullen n.d.] [synthesis]
Contraindications reported in sources:
- A parent who has sexually abused the child: filial therapy is usually not recommended; the offending parent should first receive individual treatment. [source: Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006; Guerney 2000, VanFleet 2005 as cited in Vigrass 2011; Mullen n.d. (sex offenders excluded)]
- A parent who is abusive, including a non-offending parent who still lives with the abuser. [source: Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006]
- Physical abuse or neglect: may or may not make filial therapy appropriate; decide by full clinical judgement. Filial therapy is used with maltreated and neglected children, alone or within a wider programme, when safety is in place. [source: Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006; VanFleet & Guerney 2003, as cited in Ginsberg 2012; VanFleet 2011 chapter title, Academia profile]
- Non-offending carers of sexually abused children can be suitable. [source: Costas & Landreth 1999 as cited in Vigrass 2011; Mullen n.d.]
- Parents unable to understand the skills, unwilling, or whose own pathology drives the child's problem; child problems beyond what parents can address. [source: Guerney 2000, VanFleet 2005 as cited in Vigrass 2011]
Screening steps (synthesis):
1. Ask each adult alone, not in front of the child or partner, about violence, threats, coercive control and fear in the home, and about any child-protection involvement or court orders.
2. Ask about the parent's own mental health, substance use and current stressors that would make 30 minutes of calm, accepting attention unsafe or unrealistic.
3. With children old enough, ask privately and gently how things are at home.
4. If domestic violence is current, prioritise safety planning and specialist services; do not start home sessions with a perpetrator. Work with the non-abusing carer in the office if safe. A modified, intensive filial format has been studied with mothers and children in domestic-violence shelters (Smith & Landreth 2003, a Landreth-model study, as cited in Vigrass 2011).
Stop and refer rules for home sessions (synthesis): stop home sessions and return to supervised office sessions, or stop altogether, if:
- the parent hits, shakes, threatens or humiliates the child in or after a session, or reports losing control;
- the child shows fear of the parent or new injuries, or discloses harm (follow 4.17);
- the child's play becomes repeatedly distressed in a way the parent cannot contain, or the child's symptoms escalate (consider individual play therapy by a qualified play therapist; see tabs 157-158);
- the parent's own trauma, depression or substance use is triggered and dominates (refer the parent for their own treatment);
- new information shows a contraindication above.
Example language (illustrative): "I ask every parent this on their own: has anyone at home ever hurt you, frightened you or the children, or stopped you doing things?" "Let's bring special play time back here for a few weeks so I can support you while things are this stressful."
Watch for: minimisation, a partner insisting on attending every appointment, inconsistent accounts.

4.19 Group filial therapy format

Purpose / when: when several families can be seen together; Ginsberg reports that groups are often more effective, and parents give each other feedback and support. The original Guerney groups had six to eight parents of children aged about 3-10 (Ray 1995; Schumann 2002 ERIC Digest). [source: Ginsberg 2012; Mullen n.d.; Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006]
Steps:
1. Hold an individual intake with each family before the group (screening, consent, rapport). [source: Landreth & Bratton 2006 as cited in Vigrass 2011] [synthesis: applying it to the Guerney group]
2. Run weekly group meetings of about 2 hours with a short break (VanFleet 1994 as cited in Vigrass 2011), following the same phase sequence: orientation, demonstrations, mock sessions in pairs, supervised parent-child sessions watched by the group, home sessions reported to the group, generalisation.
3. In Louise Guerney's model the programme runs 20 weeks; it covers group composition, intakes, leader skills and adaptations for special groups. [source: JKP / Bookshare descriptions of Guerney & Ryan 2013] Its session-by-session content is not reported here. [uncertain]
4. Use the group to give each parent feedback weekly and to process each parent's feelings. [source: Mullen n.d.]
Example language (illustrative): "Let's hear from Maria first: tell us one thing that went well in Thursday's session and one moment you'd like help with."
Watch for: a parent who dominates or is shamed by peers; keep peer feedback structured and positive first. [synthesis] The 10-week CPRT group model is in tab 159.

4.20 Age and situation adaptations

Purpose / when: when the child is outside the core age range or the family situation is unusual. [source: Wikipedia, Filial therapy; Hanlon, IAHIP; Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006; Mullen n.d.]
Notes:
- Core range is about 3-12 years (CUHK course outline 2025; GoodTherapy); some programmes include children from about 2 (Bratton & Crane 2003 as cited in Vigrass 2011).
- For older children and early adolescents, adapt materials and activities to age-appropriate interests (e.g. art, games, model-making), keeping the same child-led stance and limits. [source: Wikipedia, Filial therapy] [synthesis: the examples]
- Reported uses include parents with developmental delays, diverse cultural groups, incarcerated parents, foster and adoptive parents, young mothers, and parents of children with special needs. [source: Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006; Mullen n.d.; Hanlon, IAHIP]
- Cultural fit: ask about the family's beliefs on play, adult authority and emotional expression, and explain the limited, time-bounded nature of the non-directive stance; filial therapy has been studied with Chinese, Jamaican, African American and Native American families, among others. [source: Vigrass 2011 (studies listed); VanFleet et al. 2010, ch. 12 title] [synthesis: the questions]
- Touch: VanFleet et al. (2010) devote a chapter (ch. 11) to touch in child-centred play therapy, which a reviewer says separates appropriate from inappropriate touch [source: Guilford contents page; Demanchick 2011]; its specific rules are not reported here [uncertain]. General rule: physical contact follows the child's lead and comfort, stays within normal affectionate parenting, and is never sexual. Parents use no physical punishment or restraint in special play time, and hold the child only to prevent immediate harm; in demonstration sessions the therapist follows the service's touch and restrictive-practice policy. [synthesis]

5. Handling problems

Sources describe few problem-handling procedures; most responses below are marked [synthesis]. Safety problems are covered in 4.17-4.18.

Empathic listening feels awkward or false to the parent. The sources expect this at first (Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006). Normalise it, practise more short mock runs, and let the parent use their own words for reflections. [source: Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006; VanFleet as cited in Vigrass 2011 (own words)] [synthesis: the response]
Parent cannot stay present for long. Some parents cannot stay emotionally present for 10-15 minutes (Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006). Start with shorter supervised sessions, give one focus skill, debrief what pulled their attention, and build up. If it persists, look at parental depression, stress or trauma and offer the parent their own support. [synthesis]
Parent keeps questioning, praising, teaching or directing. Point to a specific moment, explain the effect (the child looks to the adult instead of leading), offer one replacement response and rehearse it. Praise is usually the hardest habit to drop; suggest reflecting the child's own pleasure instead ("You're proud of that", illustrative). [source: Ginsberg 2012 for the behaviours to avoid] [synthesis: the response]
Limit-setting is too harsh, too lax or inconsistent. VanFleet's sequence is designed for parents who over-control, under-control or are inconsistent (as cited in Vigrass 2011). Rehearse the three steps in mock sessions until automatic; for harsh parents, practise a calm voice and the child's permitted alternative; for lax parents, rehearse following through to ending the session. [synthesis: the rehearsal plan]
Parent distressed by aggressive or regressive play. Explain that aggressive play is allowed within limits and that pretend expression is different from real harm (Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006). Explore what the play stirs up for the parent (4.12). If the child's play is persistently violent or sexualised, review safety (4.17) and consider individual play therapy. [synthesis]
Child refuses or wants to leave. Treat this as a structuring task (VanFleet 2003, 2005 as cited in Vigrass 2011): the parent reflects the wish, states that this is special play time, and, if the child still wants to go, may end the session for the day and offer it again next week, without pressure or punishment. Repeated refusal: review the plan with the child's views in mind. [synthesis: the sequence] [uncertain: VanFleet's exact procedure is not reported in the sources cited]
Child tests limits repeatedly. Expected early; consistent use of the sequence, ending sessions when needed, usually reduces it. Check whether limits are too many or unclear. [synthesis]
Home sessions do not happen (non-adherence). Find the practical barrier (time, siblings, space, the other parent's views) and problem-solve; fix a day and time in the meeting; consider shorter but regular sessions; ask for a brief note or recording each week. If guilt, resentment or low motivation underlie it, address these openly; unwillingness is a reported contraindication (Guerney 2000, VanFleet 2005 as cited in Vigrass 2011). [synthesis: the response]
Parent feels judged by feedback (rupture with the parent). Acknowledge it directly, increase specific positive feedback, ask how they would like feedback given, and repair before continuing. Use the empathic listening you teach. [synthesis]
Parents disagree or only one attends. Invite both to orientation; if one stays away, help the attending parent explain the method at home and consider a joint session. Do not let sessions become a site of parental conflict. [synthesis]
Siblings feel left out. Offer each child their own special play time where possible, as the demonstration phase includes each child (Ginsberg 2012); otherwise agree fair arrangements for the other children during sessions. [synthesis]
Parent's own history is triggered. Pause the skill focus, process the reaction (4.12), and refer for the parent's own therapy if it dominates; consider returning sessions to the office meanwhile. [synthesis]
No change after a reasonable trial. Review skill accuracy (watch a recording), frequency and safety; reconsider fit. Individual play therapy may serve some children better, and a parent who is unsuitable can be referred to it respectfully. [source: Daneker & Hunter-Lee 2006; Landreth & Bratton 2006 as cited in Vigrass 2011]
Relapse after ending. Encourage continued special play times and offer booster sessions. [source: Hanlon, IAHIP; Ginsberg 2012]
Low uptake or awareness of the programme. Hanlon reports low parental awareness as the main obstacle in an Irish group programme; explain the method in plain terms to referrers and parents. [source: Hanlon, IAHIP]
Cultural mismatch. If non-directive play conflicts with family values, explain that the stance is limited to the special time and invite the parent to adapt wording; involve cultural consultants where available. [synthesis]
Therapist pitfalls. Teaching skills you do not yet practise fluently, over-interpreting play themes, and neglecting the parent's feelings. Ginsberg notes that monitoring parent and therapist reactions is difficult; use supervision from a certified filial supervisor. [source: Ginsberg 2012] [synthesis: the remedies]
Physical safety. Check the play space and toys for hazards (sharp edges, small parts for young children, breakables, windows); use washable, non-toxic art materials; keep limits for real injury. [synthesis]

Sources

Online sources:

Further online sources:

Books and papers cited (details as given in the online sources above):

Guerney, B. G., Jr. (1964). Filial therapy: Description and rationale. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 28(4), 303-310. [details from the reference lists of Ginsberg 2012, Ray 1995 and an Informa reference list]
Guerney, B. G., Jr. (1969). Filial therapy: Description and rationale. In B. G. Guerney Jr. (Ed.), Psychotherapeutic Agents: New Roles for Nonprofessionals, Parents and Teachers (pp. 450-460). Holt, Rinehart and Winston. [reprint, as listed in Schumann 2002]
Guerney, L. F. (2000). Filial therapy into the 21st century. International Journal of Play Therapy, 9(2), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0089433 [as listed in Zubir et al. 2019; Ginsberg 2012 gives pp. 1-18]
Guerney, L. F., & Guerney, B. G., Jr. (1985). The relationship enhancement family of family therapies. In L. L'Abate & M. A. Milan (Eds.), Handbook of Social Skills Training and Research (pp. 506-525). Wiley. [as listed in Ray 1995 and the Informa reference list; Ray gives pp. 506-517]
Guerney, L., & Ryan, V. (2013). Group Filial Therapy: The Complete Guide to Teaching Parents to Play Therapeutically with their Children. Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
VanFleet, R. (1994). Filial Therapy: Strengthening Parent-Child Relationships Through Play (Practitioner's Resource Series). Family Enhancement and Play Therapy Center / Professional Resource Press. [as listed in Schumann 2002]
VanFleet, R. (2005). Filial Therapy: Strengthening Parent-Child Relationships Through Play (2nd ed.). Professional Resource Press, Sarasota, FL. [as listed in Ginsberg 2012]
VanFleet, R. (2014). Filial Therapy: Strengthening Parent-Child Relationships Through Play. Professional Resource Press, Sarasota, FL. ISBN 9781568871455. [HKSYU catalogue record; edition number not stated, [uncertain] whether 3rd]
VanFleet, R. (2000; 2006 printing cited). A Parent's Handbook of Filial Play Therapy. Play Therapy Press, Boiling Springs, PA.
VanFleet, R. (2009). Filial Play Therapy (DVD). American Psychological Association.
VanFleet, R., Sywulak, A. E., & Sniscak, C. C. (2010). Child-Centered Play Therapy. Guilford Press. 236 pp.; ch. 6 play themes, ch. 8 filial therapy, ch. 11 touch. [Guilford book page]
VanFleet, R. (2011). Filial therapy for maltreated and neglected children. In Drewes (Ed.), integrative play therapy volume. [uncertain: full details not verified]
VanFleet, R., & Guerney, L. F. (Eds.) (2003). Casebook of Filial Therapy. Play Therapy Press, Boiling Springs, PA. [as listed in Ginsberg 2012 and Zubir et al. 2019]
Ginsberg, B. G. (1997). Cited in Ginsberg 2012 for the 10-session outline, pp. 78-84. [uncertain: title not verified]
Landreth, G. L., & Bratton, S. C. (2006). Child Parent Relationship Therapy (CPRT): A 10-Session Filial Therapy Model (see tab 159).

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