Prison animal programmes

1. Introduction

Version followed: the IAHAIO White Paper (2014, updated 2018) for definitions and animal-wellbeing standards; programme descriptions as published by Puppies Behind Bars (New York), the US Bureau of Land Management (BLM) with state correctional industries (Arizona, Kansas), Paws for Progress (HMP & YOI Polmont, Scotland), Rescue-Rehab (HMP Norwich, England) and PAWSitive Support (Drumheller Institution, Canada); evidence lines from the College of Policing Crime Reduction Toolkit summary of Cooke and Farrington (2016) and Duindam et al. (2020).

Prison animal programmes are not a single therapy. They are a family of correctional programmes in which incarcerated people care for, train or interact with animals. The College of Policing distinguishes two main types: dog-training programmes, in which prisoners train dogs as service or therapy dogs or teach shelter dogs basic skills to aid adoption, and dog-assisted interventions, which are structured therapeutic sessions involving dogs [source: College of Policing toolkit]. Horse programmes form a third strand: in BLM partnerships, incarcerated people gentle and train wild horses and burros under professional trainers to make them adoptable [source: BLM Arizona; BLM Hutchinson].

IAHAIO defines Animal Assisted Intervention (AAI) as a goal-oriented, structured intervention that intentionally includes animals in health, education or human services for therapeutic gain, delivered through an interdisciplinary approach. Its subtypes are Animal Assisted Therapy (AAT: led by formally trained, actively licensed health, education or human-service professionals, with progress measured and documented), Animal Assisted Education (AAE: led by qualified educators toward academic, prosocial or cognitive goals), Animal Assisted Activity (AAA: planned, informal visits by human-animal teams with at least introductory training) and, since 2018, Animal Assisted Coaching (AAC: delivered or directed by licensed coaches) [source: IAHAIO 2018]. Most dog-training and horse-gentling programmes are vocational and rehabilitative programmes rather than AAT; a clinician-led session with a therapy dog in a prison is AAT only when it meets the IAHAIO AAT definition [synthesis].

How change is thought to happen: the College of Policing lists proposed (untested) mechanisms: training a dog teaches patience and self-regulation; participants must stay infraction-free to qualify; caring for and training dogs may build empathy, responsibility, empowerment and coping; attachment to the dog may increase engagement with rehabilitation; and identity change or better responsiveness to other treatment may contribute [source: College of Policing toolkit]. Cooke and Towl describe the approach as a form of "strengths-based corrections" and point to reduced loneliness and calmer feelings improving behaviour and staff-prisoner relations [source: Cooke & Towl 2024]. Staff in the PAWSitive Support evaluation described comfort, support and feeling cared for as the core experiences [source: Gibson et al. 2023].

Evidence status in one line: the College of Policing rates the reviews' methods as very strong but the primary studies as generally low quality; Duindam et al. (2020) found a small-to-medium reduction in reoffending and no reliable social-emotional effect, and Cooke and Farrington (2016) reported improved self-esteem, wellbeing and self-efficacy, with only two of four recidivism studies significant [source: College of Policing toolkit] [uncertain: original reviews not verified].

What the psychotherapist does: (a) delivers AAT inside a prison only where trained, licensed, permitted by the institution and partnered with a credentialled animal and handler; (b) far more often, screens, prepares, supports and debriefs a client who takes part in a programme run by trainers and correctional staff; (c) collaborates with programme staff, custody staff, veterinarians and rescue organisations; (d) works with the meaning of the animal relationship, its ending and its place in reentry [synthesis].

2. Framework

Prison animal programmes have no single phase model. Published programmes vary in participant numbers, eligibility, duration and daily time with animals, and many include a vocational component [source: College of Policing toolkit]. Cooke and Towl report cycles running from 3 weeks to 24 months, with participation lasting 3 to 26 months and averaging about 10.8 months [source: Cooke & Towl 2024]. The phases below are a clinician's working sequence built around what the programmes publish [synthesis, with programme details sourced].

Phase 0: Programme appraisal (before any referral). Goal: know what the programme is, who runs it, and its rules. Examples of published formats:

Puppies Behind Bars: raisers live with puppies in individual cells on one dedicated cell block; weekly puppy class with reading, homework and exams is mandatory; puppies stay about 18 to 24 months and become service dogs for veterans and first responders, facility dogs or explosive-detection dogs; raisers sign a contract and may be asked to leave for any reason PBB deems appropriate [source: PBB FAQ].
Paws for Progress: rescue dogs trained for rehoming by young men at HMP & YOI Polmont, with each dog having a dedicated handler; an eight-week course is described, with positive-reinforcement methods and qualifications through Fife College [source: EDCH article]. Its stated aims are to improve behaviour, increase engagement in education, develop employability skills and enhance well-being [source: Leonardi 2016].
Rescue-Rehab (HMP Norwich): six sessions, typically four students plus a mentor with one dog, a practical training session paired with a classroom component; topics include positive-reinforcement training, responsible ownership, dog law, impulse control, conflict management, goal-setting and the "stress curve" [source: Rescue-Rehab report].
PAWSitive Support (Drumheller, Canada): four intensive days with therapy dogs, structured activities on basic training and the human-animal bond plus unstructured time, a less structured follow-up six months later, and the option of returning as a peer mentor [source: Gibson et al. 2023].
BLM wild-horse programmes: participants start with basic care (feeding, watering, cleaning) and progress to halter or saddle training under professional trainers and correctional staff; the Hutchinson page states the aim of preparing offenders for "reintroduction into society" [source: BLM Hutchinson; BLM Arizona]. Move on when: the programme's partners, trainer qualifications, welfare protocol and eligibility rules are known [synthesis].

Phase 1: Suitability, risk and consent. Goal: decide with the client whether the programme fits. Programmes commonly require a clean disciplinary record for a set period (PBB states at least one year) and exclude some offence categories; Rescue-Rehab and PAWSitive Support exclude animal-cruelty histories [source: PBB FAQ; Rescue-Rehab report; Gibson et al. 2023]. Screening may include interviews, psychological evaluations, background checks, prior animal experience, remaining sentence length and in-custody behaviour [source: Cooke & Towl 2024]. Move on when: programme eligibility is met, clinical contraindications are addressed, and the client has consented in writing to the programme's terms and to any information sharing [synthesis].

Phase 2: Preparation. Goal: expectations, motivation, health and safety, animal-related fears, the coming ending. Move on when the client can state the programme's rules, what will be asked of them, and how they will handle criticism and setbacks [synthesis].

Phase 3: Participation with concurrent support. Goal: help the client use the experience (self-regulation, empathy, responsibility, communication) and handle frustration, conflict and setbacks. Sessions with the therapist run alongside the programme, not inside the training sessions unless the therapist is part of the programme team [synthesis].

Phase 4: Ending and transition. Goal: prepare for and mourn the animal's departure (rehoming, placement, graduation), consolidate gains, and plan for transfer or release. Rescue-Rehab gives adoption certificates and reports students asking after the dogs; PBB dogs leave for service placements [source: Rescue-Rehab report; PBB FAQ].

Phase 5: Reentry and follow-up. Goal: carry skills, qualifications and identity into release; Rescue-Rehab noted the difficulty of continuity with rescue centres after release [source: Rescue-Rehab report].

Session counts for the therapist's own work are not given by any of these sources [uncertain]; programme durations above are the programmes' own.

3. Guiding principles

Name the type of intervention honestly. A dog-training programme is not AAT; practical meaning: describe it to the client, the institution and in records as what it is, and claim AAT only when IAHAIO's licensed-professional, documented-progress criteria are met [source: IAHAIO 2018; synthesis].
Interdisciplinary delivery. IAHAIO states AAI should be developed and delivered through an interdisciplinary approach; practical meaning: plan with trainers, custody staff, veterinarians and education partners, never alone [source: IAHAIO 2018].
The animal is not a tool. IAHAIO says animals are living beings, not mere tools; practical meaning: animal welfare can override a session plan, a programme placement or a client's wish [source: IAHAIO 2018].
Only suitable, healthy, willing animals. Animals must be in good physical and emotional health and enjoy the work, assessed by an expert and re-evaluated; only domesticated species in direct interaction, and wild or exotic species not, even if tame [source: IAHAIO 2018]. Practical meaning: wild-horse gentling is a training and adoption programme, not AAI under IAHAIO's species guidance, and should be framed and risk-assessed that way [synthesis].
Read the animal's consent and stress signals. Handlers must recognise signs of discomfort and stress; activities that jeopardise an animal's comfort are prohibited and recipients are supervised at all times [source: IAHAIO 2018]. Practical meaning: build in stop rules and rest; the animal's withdrawal is a valid "no".
Humane training only. IAHAIO specifies humane methods such as positive reinforcement, and the published prison programmes use positive reinforcement [source: IAHAIO 2018; EDCH article; Cooke & Towl 2024]. Practical meaning: harsh handling is a clinical and welfare issue, not a training style.
Know the institution's rules. IAHAIO asks professionals in prisons and other institutions with visiting or resident animals to know local laws and policies, advocate for animal-care policies, and consider an ethics committee with animal-welfare expertise [source: IAHAIO 2018]. Practical meaning: check custody, security and infection-control policies before planning anything.
Health and infection control are part of the programme. Few data confirm pathogen transmission between therapy animals and people, but carriage of MRSA, C. difficile and other organisms by visiting animals has been found, with raw-meat diets, treat-feeding and licking as risk factors [source: Dalton et al. 2020]. SHEA guidance for healthcare settings calls for a written policy, a liaison, trained and evaluated animals and handlers, and hand hygiene before and after contact [source: SHEA 2015 via Infection Control Today]. Practical meaning: apply the setting's health-care rules where the prison has health-care wings or immunocompromised participants [synthesis].
Voluntariness inside a coercive setting. Participation is described as voluntary, but entry and continuation depend on behaviour records [source: PBB FAQ; Rescue-Rehab report; College of Policing toolkit]. Practical meaning: check that the client is not choosing under pressure (parole optics, staff expectations) and that refusal carries no penalty in therapy [synthesis].
Confidentiality limits are stated up front. Programmes collect data and require contracts or compacts [source: Rescue-Rehab report; PBB FAQ]. Practical meaning: agree in writing what the therapist will and will not share with programme or custody staff [synthesis].
Dual roles are managed, not ignored. A therapist who is also a programme facilitator, assessor or staff member holds multiple roles; see APA Ethics Code Standard 3.05 on multiple relationships (APA Ethics Code); practical meaning: separate assessment from therapy where possible and document the role boundaries [synthesis].
Competence matches the role. IAHAIO requires handlers to know their animals and be trained in animal behaviour, welfare and the human setting, and AAT professionals to have formal training and credentials [source: IAHAIO 2018]. Practical meaning: a therapist without animal training does not handle the animal; insurance and liability cover for any animal work is checked with the insurer and the institution [synthesis].
Endings are built in. Dogs leave by design (rehoming, placement); participants may be transferred or released mid-course [source: Rescue-Rehab report; PBB FAQ]. Practical meaning: plan the goodbye from the first session [synthesis].
Hippotherapy is distinct. Hippotherapy is delivered by licensed physical, occupational or speech therapists and is not the same as prison horse-gentling or equine-assisted psychotherapy (see the hippotherapy guide in this family).
Touch. Contact with the animal is consented before and during, and the client can stop at any time; any human-to-human touch is consented and never sexual [synthesis].
Strengths and identity. The programmes frame participants as trainers, mentors and contributors [source: Cooke & Towl 2024; Rescue-Rehab report]. Practical meaning: use the language of skill and contribution rather than deficit [synthesis].

4. Intervention inventory

The programme sources describe programme components (training, care, classes, mentoring, certificates) rather than psychotherapist procedures. The inventory therefore gives the programme components a therapist can deliver, support or build on, plus therapist-side procedures; procedures not described in the sources are marked [synthesis]. Example language is illustrative throughout.

4.1 Role mapping: what kind of programme, what is the therapist's role

Purpose / when: at the start of any involvement, so that the client, the institution and the record describe the work accurately [source: IAHAIO 2018; College of Policing toolkit].
Steps: (1) Classify the programme: dog-training (service, facility or detection dogs; rescue rehoming), dog-assisted intervention (therapy-dog sessions), or horse gentling. (2) Check it against the IAHAIO definitions: is a licensed professional leading goal-directed work with documented progress (AAT), an educator (AAE), a visiting team (AAA), or none of these? (3) Write down your own role: referrer, concurrent therapist, programme team clinician, or AAT provider. (4) Tell the client which it is. [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "The dog programme is run by the trainers and the prison. My part is to help you get ready for it, to talk through how it's going, and to think with you about what it means for you. I'm not your trainer and I don't decide whether you stay on it."
Watch for: institutional pressure to label a training programme as therapy; the client assuming the therapist controls placement. Working when the client can describe who does what [synthesis].

4.2 Appraising a programme before referral

Purpose / when: before suggesting or supporting an application [synthesis].
Steps: ask the programme for: (1) its partners and who trains the animals (PBB uses its own instructors; Paws for Progress works with rescue organisations and Fife College; BLM programmes use professional trainers with correctional staff; Rescue-Rehab has a behaviourist overseeing the dogs) [source: PBB FAQ; EDCH article; BLM Hutchinson; Rescue-Rehab report]; (2) eligibility and exclusions; (3) its welfare protocol (animal health checks, rest, supervision; e.g. Rescue-Rehab never leaves a dog unattended and has only one dog per session) [source: Rescue-Rehab report]; (4) infection-control policy and incident reporting; (5) what happens when a participant is removed, transferred or released; (6) what data are collected and shared; (7) whether a written policy and an ethics or oversight group exist, as IAHAIO advises [source: IAHAIO 2018]. Record the answers [synthesis].
Example language (illustrative, to programme staff): "Before I support a referral, could you tell me how the dogs are assessed and rested, who supervises sessions, and what happens to a participant who is moved mid-course?"
Watch for: no named animal professional, no welfare protocol, no plan for endings. Working when you could explain the programme to the client in plain terms and know its stop rules [synthesis].

4.3 Eligibility and clinical suitability screening

Purpose / when: when a client wants to apply or is put forward [source: Cooke & Towl 2024; PBB FAQ].
Steps: (1) Confirm programme criteria: disciplinary record (PBB: clean for at least one year), offence-category exclusions, animal-cruelty exclusion (Rescue-Rehab; PAWSitive Support), remaining sentence length, willingness to attend every session (Rescue-Rehab asks students to commit to all six) [source: PBB FAQ; Rescue-Rehab report; Gibson et al. 2023; Cooke & Towl 2024]. (2) Add clinical screening: allergies and asthma, animal phobia, history of being attacked or bitten, use of animals in abuse or threats in the client's history, current risk of violence, impulsivity under frustration, substance use, immunosuppression or other health conditions relevant to zoonoses, and for horse programmes, mobility and injury history [synthesis; Dalton et al. 2020 on allergies and infection]. (3) Decide with the programme, not alone, where risk to the animal is the question [synthesis].
Example language (illustrative): "Some of these questions are about your health and some are about how you've been around animals in the past, including anything that went badly. It's so we can keep you and the dog safe, not to catch you out."
Watch for: concealed animal-cruelty history or coercive use of animals (refer to programme and safeguarding procedures); minimising allergy or fear to secure a place. Working when risks are named and a plan exists for each [synthesis].

4.4 Animal-history interview

Purpose / when: during preparation, to understand what animals mean to the client [synthesis].
Steps: (1) Ask about animals in childhood and adulthood: pets, working animals, losses. (2) Ask about fear or injury from animals and about animals used to threaten or hurt people in the household. (3) Ask what the client expects the animal to give them and what they fear. (4) Note links to attachment, loss and trust that may surface. (5) Agree what to do if memories arise during training [synthesis].
Example language (illustrative): "Tell me about the animals that have been part of your life. Which ones mattered, and what happened to them?"
Watch for: grief about a pet lost at arrest or sentencing; trauma linked to animals. Working when the client can link their history to how they might react to the dog or horse [synthesis].

4.5 Informed consent and information-sharing agreement

Purpose / when: before participation and before any contact with programme staff [synthesis].
Steps: (1) Go through the programme's own contract or compact with the client (PBB raisers sign a contract; Rescue-Rehab students sign compacts allowing anonymous use of their comments and data) [source: PBB FAQ; Rescue-Rehab report]. (2) Separately agree, in writing, what the therapist will share with programme and custody staff, and the limits of confidentiality (risk to self, others or the animal). (3) Confirm the client can withdraw from therapy support without affecting programme status, and vice versa where the programme allows. (4) Confirm consent to animal contact and the right to stop at any time [synthesis].
Example language (illustrative): "If you tell me you're struggling with the dog, that stays between us unless you or the dog are at risk. If that ever happens, I'll tell you first what I need to pass on."
Watch for: consent given because staff expect it; confusion about whether therapy notes go to parole or programme staff. Working when the client can restate the agreement [synthesis].

4.6 Expectations and motivational preparation

Purpose / when: after acceptance, before the first animal session [synthesis].
Steps: (1) Review the demands the programme states: for PBB, weekly class with reading, homework and exams, putting the puppy's needs first, teamwork and accepting criticism constructively; for Rescue-Rehab, attending every session [source: PBB FAQ; Rescue-Rehab report]. (2) Explore the client's own reasons and anticipated barriers. (3) Rehearse responses to criticism from trainers. (4) Plan how they will keep their behaviour record, which most programmes require during participation [source: College of Policing toolkit]. [synthesis for steps 2-4]
Example language (illustrative): "The trainers will correct you in front of others. When that happened before, what did you do? What would you want to do this time?"
Watch for: idealised expectations of the animal as a cure; parole-only motivation. Working when the client names a personal reason and one coping plan for criticism [synthesis].

4.7 Health, hygiene and safety briefing

Purpose / when: before first contact, and again for clients with health risks [source: Dalton et al. 2020; SHEA 2015 via Infection Control Today].
Steps: (1) Confirm the programme's animal health checks (IAHAIO: veterinary checks at selection and regularly after, at least annual evaluations covering vaccination and parasite prevention; BLM animals are veterinarian-examined, vaccinated, dewormed and Coggins-tested) [source: IAHAIO 2018; BLM Arizona]. (2) Review hand hygiene before and after contact [source: SHEA 2015 via Infection Control Today]. (3) Discuss the risk factors the review identified: being licked, feeding treats, raw-meat diets [source: Dalton et al. 2020]. (4) For immunocompromised clients, involve prison health care; IAHAIO notes some settings may require infection screening [source: IAHAIO 2018]. (5) Cover bites, scratches and, around horses, kicks, crush injuries and falls qualitatively, and how to report an incident [synthesis].
Example language (illustrative): "Wash your hands before and after you handle the dog, even when it's rushed. If you get bitten or scratched, however small, tell staff the same day."
Watch for: unreported minor bites; clients feeding treats against rules. Working when incidents are reported and hygiene is routine [synthesis].

4.8 Reading the animal: body language and stress signals

Purpose / when: early in participation; supports both animal welfare and the client's capacity to read another's state. Observation of dog body language and the "stress curve" are part of the Rescue-Rehab curriculum, and IAHAIO requires handlers to recognise discomfort and stress [source: Rescue-Rehab report; IAHAIO 2018].
Steps: (1) Let the trainer teach the signals; the therapist does not teach animal behaviour without competence. (2) In therapy, ask the client to describe moments when they noticed the animal getting stressed and what they did. (3) Link noticing in the animal to noticing in themselves and others: early signs, escalation, recovery. (4) Practise naming their own stress signals and those of others on the wing [synthesis].
Example language (illustrative): "What did you see in the dog just before it backed off? ... And what's the first thing that happens in you before you lose your temper?"
Watch for: the client pushing an animal past its signals to finish a task; using the parallel to shame themselves. Working when the client reports stopping or easing off when the animal shows stress, and starts applying the same noticing to people [synthesis].

4.9 Positive-reinforcement training as a self-regulation practice

Purpose / when: throughout; the programmes use positive reinforcement and describe the work as teaching patience, impulse control, calm working and conflict management [source: College of Policing toolkit; Rescue-Rehab report; Cooke & Towl 2024].
Steps: (1) Ask the client to describe a training moment that went wrong and one that went right. (2) Identify what they did with frustration: paused, reset, raised voice. (3) Draw out the principle they used with the dog (reward what you want; keep calm; small steps) and test whether it applies to their own behaviour change. (4) Set a small, self-chosen practice for the week on the wing [synthesis].
Example language (illustrative): "When she wouldn't sit, what did you do instead of forcing it? Where else in your week could you try that same pause?"
Watch for: punitive handling under pressure (raise with trainers if welfare is at risk); perfectionism. Working when the client describes calming themselves to keep a session on track [synthesis].

4.10 Goal setting and coaching

Purpose / when: at entry and at milestones; Rescue-Rehab uses a goal-setting coaching approach [source: Rescue-Rehab report].
Steps: (1) Agree two or three goals of the client's own (for example, reliability, communication, staying out of trouble, a qualification). (2) Link each to a visible behaviour in the programme. (3) Review at milestones and at the end; measures used by programmes include disciplinary reports, written assessments, qualifications, self-efficacy and self-esteem scales [source: Rescue-Rehab report; Leonardi 2016]. Describe any scale to the client without reproducing items [synthesis].
Example language (illustrative): "If this course works for you, what would the staff on your wing notice in three months?"
Watch for: goals set by staff only; difficulty with scale wording, which Rescue-Rehab reported for its self-efficacy measure [source: Rescue-Rehab report]. Working when the client tracks their own progress [synthesis].

4.11 Parallel-process reflection

Purpose / when: when the client notices links between their life and the animal's; participants in Paws for Progress often see parallels between their lives and the rescue dogs' experiences [source: EDCH article].
Steps: (1) Wait for the client to raise a parallel; do not impose one. (2) Explore it with curiosity: what in the animal's story speaks to them. (3) Look for what helped the animal (patience, consistency, a second chance) and whether the client can offer or ask for that. (4) Keep the reflection hopeful and specific [synthesis].
Example language (illustrative): "You said he was 'written off' at the shelter. Does that ring a bell? What's changed for him since he's been with you?"
Watch for: over-identification that makes the dog's progress a test of the client's worth; distress if the animal regresses. Working when the client can extend some compassion from the animal to themselves [synthesis].

4.12 Peer teaching, trainer rotation and mentoring

Purpose / when: mid-programme and after completion. Rescue-Rehab students take turns as trainer, assistant or mentor; PAWSitive Support graduates can return as peer mentors; PBB raisers sometimes swap dogs and new handlers may be paired with senior handlers [source: Rescue-Rehab report; Gibson et al. 2023; PBB FAQ; Cooke & Towl 2024].
Steps: (1) Help the client prepare for a turn as trainer or mentor: what they will explain, how they will handle a peer's mistake. (2) Debrief afterwards: what it was like to be relied on. (3) Explore the mentor role as a pro-social identity to carry forward [synthesis].
Example language (illustrative): "Next week you're showing the new lads how to start loose-lead work. How do you want to correct someone without putting them down?"
Watch for: status conflict between mentors and newcomers; a mentor role used for control. Working when the client describes helping someone succeed [synthesis].

4.13 Clinician-delivered animal-assisted therapy sessions

Purpose / when: only where the therapist is formally trained and licensed, the institution permits it, and a credentialled animal-handler team is in place; this meets the IAHAIO AAT definition [source: IAHAIO 2018]. PAWSitive Support is an example of a structured therapy-dog programme in a federal prison, with facilitators, health-assessed therapy dogs with basic obedience, structured activities and unstructured time [source: Gibson et al. 2023].
Steps: (1) Write treatment goals and how progress will be documented. (2) Agree the handler's role (the handler manages the animal; the therapist manages the therapy). (3) Plan the room (space, exits, water, a rest area for the animal) and security requirements. (4) Open each session by checking the client's consent to contact and the animal's state. (5) Use contact (stroking, grooming, simple training cues) to support the session goal, such as regulation before difficult material or practising calm leadership. (6) Respect the animal's limits: IAHAIO guidance limits sessions to 30-45 minutes for the animal and requires rest, water and safe floors [source: IAHAIO 2018]. (7) Close with hand hygiene and a brief review [source: SHEA 2015 via Infection Control Today; synthesis for steps 1-5, 7].
Example language (illustrative): "Bella's here if you want her nearby while we talk. You can stroke her or not; she'll let us know if she needs a break, and so can you."
Watch for: the animal's stress signals; the client using the animal to avoid all talk; staff seeing the session as a reward to withhold. Staff in the PAWSitive Support evaluation reported participants lowering their guard and expressing emotion more freely [source: Gibson et al. 2023]; working when the client engages with goals as well as the animal [synthesis].

4.14 Supporting a client through setbacks, infractions and removal

Purpose / when: when an infraction, conflict or trainer concern threatens the place. Programmes require an infraction-free record during participation, and PBB can ask a raiser to leave for any reason it deems appropriate [source: College of Policing toolkit; PBB FAQ]. Rescue-Rehab accepted a student previously declined as high risk after six weeks of improved behaviour [source: Rescue-Rehab report].
Steps: (1) Hear the client's account without taking sides. (2) Separate what is recoverable (apology, repair, a review meeting) from what is final. (3) With consent, help the client prepare for a meeting with programme staff. (4) If removed, treat it as a loss (see 4.16) and look at re-application routes [synthesis].
Example language (illustrative): "You're angry and you're gutted about Max. Both make sense. Let's work out what's still open to you and what you want to say at the review."
Watch for: escalation after removal; self-harm risk where the animal was the main source of comfort (follow standard prison risk-assessment procedures). Working when the client can act on the decision without further incidents [synthesis].

4.15 Preparing for the animal's departure

Purpose / when: from the start and intensively before rehoming, placement or the end of the course. Dogs leave by design: PBB dogs go to service work after about 18 to 24 months; rescue dogs are rehomed; BLM horses are adopted [source: PBB FAQ; Rescue-Rehab report; BLM Arizona]. Rescue-Rehab students receive adoption certificates and some asked after the dogs' progress [source: Rescue-Rehab report].
Steps: (1) Name the ending in the first conversation. (2) Midway, ask how the client imagines the goodbye. (3) Help the client plan a goodbye they can manage within programme rules (a last session, a note for the new owner if allowed, a certificate). (4) Frame the departure as the purpose of the work being fulfilled [synthesis].
Example language (illustrative): "He's going to a family because of what you've taught him. What would you want them to know about him?"
Watch for: denial, detachment late in the programme, sabotage to delay the ending. Working when the client can talk about the ending with both sadness and pride [synthesis].

4.16 Grief work after the animal leaves or the client is moved

Purpose / when: after rehoming, placement, removal, the animal's illness or death, or the client's transfer or release mid-course; Rescue-Rehab reports discharges and transfers interrupting courses [source: Rescue-Rehab report].
Steps: (1) Acknowledge the loss as real; animal loss is often unrecognised in prison. (2) Explore what the relationship gave and what the client can keep (skills, qualification, identity as a trainer). (3) Link with earlier losses where the client wishes. (4) Screen mood and risk, following standard risk-assessment practice; in the US, the 988 Suicide & Crisis Lifeline exists for people outside custody; in the UK and Ireland, Samaritans can be reached on 116 123 [synthesis].
Example language (illustrative): "People don't always get how much it hurts to say goodbye to a dog in here. What do you miss most?"
Watch for: withdrawal, anger at staff, reactivation of earlier grief. Working when the client speaks of the animal without being overwhelmed and continues other activities [synthesis].

4.17 Collaboration with programme, custody, veterinary and education staff

Purpose / when: throughout. IAHAIO calls for interdisciplinary delivery and, in institutions, knowledge of local laws and policies, advocacy for animal-care policy and an ethics committee with animal-welfare expertise [source: IAHAIO 2018]. Programmes are multi-partner: e.g. BLM with state correctional industries and a veterinary college; Paws for Progress with the Scottish Prison Service, Fife College and rescue organisations [source: BLM Arizona; EDCH article; Leonardi 2016].
Steps: (1) Identify a single programme contact. (2) Agree, with the client's consent, a routine for sharing information (e.g. a brief monthly check). (3) Raise welfare concerns about an animal directly with the trainer or veterinary lead. (4) Feed clinical observations into programme review where appropriate [synthesis].
Example language (illustrative, to staff): "With his consent, I wanted to let you know he finds group corrections hard; one-to-one feedback after the session tends to land better."
Watch for: information flowing to custody decisions without the client's knowledge. Working when staff and client both report clearer communication [synthesis].

4.18 Animal-welfare monitoring and stop rules

Purpose / when: in any session the therapist leads or attends. IAHAIO prohibits activities that jeopardise an animal's safety or comfort, requires supervision at all times to prevent teasing or rough handling, and requires rest and avoidance of overwork; Rescue-Rehab never leaves a dog unattended and builds rest into sessions [source: IAHAIO 2018; Rescue-Rehab report].
Steps: (1) Agree stop signals with the handler before the session. (2) Pause on stress signals or rough handling. (3) End or move the animal out if it does not settle. (4) Debrief the client without shaming. (5) Record and report as the programme requires [synthesis for steps 1, 3-5].
Example language (illustrative): "Let's give him a break; he's yawning and turning away. That's him telling us he's had enough for now."
Watch for: pressure to continue for the client's sake. Working when stops happen early and calmly [synthesis].

4.19 Preparing for horse programmes

Purpose / when: before a client joins a wild-horse gentling programme. BLM programme participants teach horses and burros to lead, load, accept handling and halters and respond calmly to cues, progressing from basic care to training under professional trainers [source: BLM Arizona; BLM Hutchinson].
Steps: (1) Screen mobility, injury history, fear of large animals and trauma relevant to restraint or being cornered. (2) Explain qualitatively the risks around horses: kicks, bites, being knocked down or crushed, falls when riding; the BLM pages do not address participant safety, so ask the programme for its safety rules [source: BLM Arizona; synthesis]. (3) Explore what trust-building with an animal that has not been handled may evoke. (4) Agree how the client will report fear or injury [synthesis].
Example language (illustrative): "These horses haven't been handled before. Being patient with one might bring up a lot. How do you usually react when something big and scared is in front of you?"
Watch for: bravado and risk-taking; frustration when progress is slow. Working when the client follows trainer safety rules and can describe the horse's progress calmly [synthesis].

4.20 Incident debriefing

Purpose / when: after a bite, scratch, fall, kick, animal aggression or the client's rough handling [synthesis].
Steps: (1) Ensure medical care and incident reporting through the programme. (2) Debrief the facts, then feelings and thoughts. (3) Look at what happened before the incident in both the animal and the client. (4) Agree with trainers what changes before the next session. (5) Watch for trauma reactions and fear generalising to the animal [synthesis].
Example language (illustrative): "Let's go through it slowly: what was happening just before she snapped? What did you notice in her, and in you?"
Watch for: blame of the animal or self; concealment of incidents. Working when the client returns to work with the animal with a clear safety plan, or chooses not to and is supported in that [synthesis].

4.21 Reentry and reincorporation planning

Purpose / when: before release or transfer. The Hutchinson programme states the aim of preparing offenders for "reintroduction into society"; programmes offer qualifications and employability skills; Rescue-Rehab identified continuity with rescue centres after release as hard to arrange [source: BLM Hutchinson; Leonardi 2016; Rescue-Rehab report].
Steps: (1) List skills, certificates and references gained. (2) Explore animal-related work, volunteering or study, checking any licence, record or supervision conditions. (3) Plan for owning a pet only if housing and conditions allow. (4) Identify who on the outside will recognise the client's new identity [synthesis].
Example language (illustrative): "You've trained dogs that now help other people. How do you want to use that when you're out?"
Watch for: loss of structure and purpose after release; unrealistic job expectations. Working when the client has a concrete next step [synthesis].

4.22 Working with the meaning of the programme in the client's life

Purpose / when: throughout and at follow-up; staff in the PAWSitive Support evaluation described comfort, support and feeling cared for and valued as the core experiences [source: Gibson et al. 2023].
Steps: (1) Ask what the animal relationship has changed in how the client sees themselves. (2) Explore being cared about and trusted, which may be unfamiliar. (3) Help the client name what they can now offer others. (4) Integrate this into the wider treatment plan [synthesis].
Example language (illustrative): "What does it say about you that a dog that wouldn't come near anyone now waits for you at the door?"
Watch for: the animal becoming the only source of worth. Working when the client applies the same care and patience to people [synthesis].

5. Handling problems

The programme sources name operational problems (timetabling, lockdowns, transfers, measurement, continuity after release); the clinical responses below are synthesis unless a source is given.

Programme disrupted by lockdowns, timetabling or room loss. Rescue-Rehab reports sessions disrupted by prison timetabling, lockdowns and limited room access [source: Rescue-Rehab report]. Response: treat cancellations as predictable; agree in advance what the client will do with the frustration, and use therapy time to keep the work going (reflection, goals, written tasks) [synthesis].
Transfer or release mid-course. Rescue-Rehab shortened its courses because participants were discharged or transferred [source: Rescue-Rehab report]. Response: plan for an unplanned ending from the outset; secure a certificate or written record of progress where the programme can give one; offer a closing session about the loss [synthesis].
Stuck client: attending but not engaging. Response: check whether the client chose the programme or was steered into it; review goals (4.10); try a different role (mentor, record-keeping, assistant) with programme agreement; accept withdrawal as a legitimate choice [synthesis].
Resistance to trainers' authority or to criticism. PBB requires raisers to accept criticism constructively [source: PBB FAQ]. Response: rehearse responses to correction; explore what criticism evokes; with consent, suggest to staff a feedback format the client can use (4.17) [synthesis].
Overwhelm: the animal relationship evokes grief, trauma or shame. Response: slow down; ground before and after sessions; link the response to the history gathered in 4.4; if trauma symptoms escalate, consider trauma-focused treatment alongside or before continuing [synthesis].
Non-adherence: missed sessions, homework, care duties. Rescue-Rehab treats unexplained absence as a lack of work ethic, without failing anyone; PBB has mandatory classes, reading and exams [source: Rescue-Rehab report; PBB FAQ]. Response: identify barriers (literacy, wing conflict, health, medication side-effects reported to health care, not changed by the therapist); help the client talk to staff before a pattern forms [synthesis].
Literacy and measurement difficulties. Rescue-Rehab found some students struggled with the wording of a self-efficacy scale [source: Rescue-Rehab report]. Response: read measures aloud where permitted, use plain language, and rely on behavioural indicators alongside scales [synthesis].
Rupture with the therapist. Typical triggers: a perception that the therapist reported the client, influenced removal, or failed to advocate. Response: revisit the information-sharing agreement (4.5), own any lapse, and repair before returning to programme topics [synthesis].
Harsh handling or suspected cruelty to the animal. IAHAIO prohibits activities that jeopardise animal safety or comfort and requires supervision to prevent teasing or rough handling [source: IAHAIO 2018]. Response: stop the session; inform the trainer and programme lead; follow the programme's welfare and reporting rules; the animal's welfare takes priority over confidentiality where an animal is at risk, which should already be stated in 4.5 [synthesis].
Animal stress, illness or unsuitability. IAHAIO requires veterinary oversight and regular re-evaluation of suitability [source: IAHAIO 2018]. Response: support the client through the animal's withdrawal from the programme; avoid blaming the client; treat it as a loss (4.16) [synthesis].
Bites, scratches, falls and infection concerns. Response: report every incident; involve prison health care; reinforce hand hygiene; reassess suitability for immunocompromised clients [source: SHEA 2015 via Infection Control Today; Dalton et al. 2020; synthesis].
Allergy or phobia discovered after entry. Response: arrange medical review through health care; for phobia, offer exposure-based work only with consent, in graded steps the client controls, with trained staff and an animal assessed as suitable, and never at the animal's expense [synthesis].
Jealousy, status conflict or misuse of the animal on the wing. Programmes housing animals on one cell block (PBB) concentrate participants and animals together [source: PBB FAQ]. Response: help the client handle envy or threats from others; alert staff if the animal could be used for leverage, trading or intimidation [synthesis].
Over-attachment and dependence. Response: plan the ending early (4.15); broaden sources of support (peers, family, education); monitor mood around the departure date [synthesis].
Distress after the dog leaves, including suicide risk. Response: follow the institution's standard risk-assessment and safer-custody procedures; do not rely on informal reassurance; for people in the community, 988 (US) and Samaritans 116 123 (UK and Ireland) are available [synthesis].
Coercion and parole optics. Response: check the client's freedom to decline; document that refusal or withdrawal has no bearing on therapy; avoid writing reports that equate programme participation with reduced risk, since the evidence on social-emotional outcomes is mixed [source: College of Policing toolkit; synthesis].
Dual-role tension for a therapist on the programme team. Response: separate assessment and therapy roles where possible; tell the client which role you are in at each meeting; seek supervision; see APA Ethics Code Standard 3.05 [synthesis].
Release without continuity. Rescue-Rehab proposed continuity with rescue centres after release and follow-up courses [source: Rescue-Rehab report]. Response: link the client to community volunteering or training opportunities before release and include the programme in the release plan [synthesis].

Sources

Cited as summarised by the College of Policing toolkit [uncertain: not verified]: Cooke, B. J., & Farrington, D. P. (2016). The effectiveness of dog-training programs in prison: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the literature. The Prison Journal, 96(6), 854-876. Duindam, H. M., et al. (2020). Are we barking up the right tree? A meta-analysis on the effectiveness of prison-based dog programs. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 47(6), 749-767.

Cited as listed in the CDC Stacks record: Dalton, K. R., et al. (2020). Risks associated with animal-assisted intervention programs: A literature review. Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice, 39, 101145. Cited as reported by Infection Control Today [uncertain: not verified]: Murthy, R., et al. (2015). SHEA Expert Guidance: Animals in healthcare facilities: Recommendations to minimize potential risks. Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology.

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