Apprenticeship and formal mentoring programmes

1. Introduction

Version followed: for formal youth mentoring, MENTOR (National Mentoring Partnership), Elements of Effective Practice for Mentoring, 4th edition (2015; steering committee M. Garringer, J. Kupersmidt, J. Rhodes, R. Stelter, T. Tai); for apprenticeship, Registered Apprenticeship as the US Department of Labor publishes it, and employer responsibilities in England as a university apprenticeship provider summarises the GOV.UK rules. Mentoring as a helping relationship in its own right is covered in VI 131 Mentoring; this guide covers mentoring and apprenticeship as formation programmes. [source: MENTOR Nebraska EEP page; EEP 4th ed. (Garringer et al. 2015); apprenticeship.gov; Open University employer responsibilities]

Apprenticeship and formal mentoring are not psychotherapies. They are formation programmes in which a less experienced person develops through a structured, supervised relationship with a more experienced one. Two forms are covered:

Formal youth mentoring: a programme recruits, screens and trains volunteer adults, matches each with a young person, and staff monitor and support the match until a planned closure. The EEP sets six standards (recruitment, screening, training, matching and initiating, monitoring and support, closure), each with required benchmarks and optional enhancements. [source: EEP 4th ed.]
Apprenticeship: a paid job combined with structured on-the-job learning from an experienced mentor, supplemental classroom education and a recognised credential. In the US, Registered Apprenticeship programmes are validated by the Department of Labor or a State Apprenticeship Agency; wages rise as skills grow. [source: apprenticeship.gov] In England the apprentice has a genuine job and an employment contract lasting the whole apprenticeship, an apprenticeship agreement, a training plan, paid off-the-job training, a named workplace person responsible for their learning, and an end-point assessment. [source: Open University employer responsibilities, summarising GOV.UK rules]

How change is thought to happen. In Rhodes's model of youth mentoring, a relationship marked by mutuality, trust and empathy produces change, moderated by the young person's history, the length of the match and family and community context; much of the effect is indirect, through the young person's relationships with parents and peers. [source: Rhodes 2005, as summarised in the Scottish Mentoring Network research guide] Apprenticeship develops skill and occupational identity through supervised practice in a real job, with study alongside it. [source: apprenticeship.gov]

Evidence status, one line each. A meta-analysis of 73 evaluations found mentoring programmes improved behavioural, social, emotional and academic outcomes, with modest gains of unclear duration (DuBois et al. 2011). [source: APS PSPI page; OJP abstract] The Public/Private Ventures Big Brothers Big Sisters impact study found participants 46% less likely than controls to start using drugs, with fewer skipped school days and better parent relationships (Tierney, Grossman and Resch 1995, reissued 2000). [source: OJP abstract] Matches that ended within three months were followed by declines in self-worth and perceived scholastic competence relative to controls (Grossman and Rhodes 2002). [source: Scottish Mentoring Network research guide; original not verified]

What the psychotherapist does. Assesses whether a programme fits a client; checks a programme's quality before referring; prepares a young person and family for a match or an apprenticeship; consults (with consent) with parents, programme staff, employers and training providers; supports the client through difficulties, closures and assessments; acts on safeguarding concerns; arranges assessment when learning or developmental needs surface; supports adult clients who volunteer as mentors; and works with the meaning of mentors, masters and apprenticeships in the client's own formation. A therapist may also volunteer as a mentor or act as a workplace mentor, which raises dual-role questions (see 4.20). [synthesis]

2. Framework

This is a programme framework, not a session protocol. Two parallel tracks run together: the programme's own cycle, which the programme runs, and the therapist's track alongside it. [synthesis]

2a. The formal youth mentoring cycle (EEP 4th ed.)

Recruitment. Goal: realistic recruitment of mentors whose skills and motivations fit the programme, and of young people whose needs match its services. The programme describes benefits, supports and challenges honestly. [source: EEP B.1.1-B.1.7]
Screening. Goal: safety and suitability. Required: written acceptance and disqualification criteria; a written application; at least one face-to-face interview; a comprehensive criminal background check (national records, sex offender and child abuse registries, driving record where relevant); reference interviews; written agreement to the programme's minimum commitment (the benchmark default is one year, meeting on average weekly and at least four hours a month). Parents or guardians complete an application or referral and give informed permission; young people may give written assent (an enhancement). [source: EEP B.2.1-B.2.12, E.2.8]
Training. Goal: mentors understand roles, ethics, safety and closure before matching. Required: at least two hours of in-person pre-match training (six or more is an enhancement), including risk-management policies on physical contact, confidentiality, digital and social media, transport, money, emergencies, substance use, weapons and mandatory reporting of suspected abuse or neglect and of suicidality and homicidality. [source: EEP B.3.1-B.3.4, E.3.1; Montgomery County guidance]
Matching and initiating. Goal: a match that fits interests, location, availability, age, gender, race and ethnicity, personality, goals, strengths, experiences and the preferences of mentor, mentee and parent. Staff brief each party, a documented first meeting takes place with staff present or on site, and mentor, mentee, staff and parent sign a commitment agreement covering frequency, duration, roles and risk policies. [source: EEP B.4.1-B.4.4, E.4.1-E.4.6, via Montgomery County guidance]
Monitoring and support. Goal: a safe relationship of good quality. Staff contact mentor and mentee at least twice in the first month and monthly afterwards, and a parent, guardian or teacher on the same schedule, asking about activities, outcomes, child safety and relationship quality; they regularly judge whether the match should continue, document meetings, and provide resources and referrals. [source: EEP B.5.1-B.5.12, via Montgomery County guidance]
Closure. Goal: an ending that affirms both parties. Separate procedures exist for anticipated closures, unanticipated closures and closures where one party cannot or will not take part; exit interviews; a written rematching policy; written rules on contact after closure, including digital contact. [source: EEP B.6.1-B.6.9; NRPA closure guidance]

Moving between phases: the programme decides, using its written criteria (screening passed, training completed, agreement signed, monitoring showing a safe match). The therapist does not decide programme progression but can share relevant information with consent. [synthesis]

2b. The apprenticeship cycle

US Registered Apprenticeship: industry-led programme; paid job with progressive wages; structured on-the-job learning with an experienced mentor; supplemental education; a portable, nationally recognised credential. [source: apprenticeship.gov]
England, as one provider describes the employer side: apprenticeship agreement signed before the start; training plan signed by line manager, provider and apprentice; paid off-the-job training time; a named workplace person responsible for the apprentice's learning (mentors or buddies optional); progress reviews (this provider runs quarterly tripartite reviews); a gateway at which the line manager confirms competence; end-point assessment by an assessment organisation, with reasonable adjustments available. [source: Open University employer responsibilities] Detailed and current funding rules are on GOV.UK and change yearly. [uncertain: not verified]

2c. The therapist's track [synthesis]

Assessment of fit and readiness (before referral or application).
Preparation of client and family (expectations, consent and assent, safety knowledge).
Accompaniment while the match or apprenticeship runs (consultation, problem-solving, safeguarding vigilance, progress reviews).
Transitions (closure, rematching, gateway and assessment, completion or withdrawal).
Integration (what the relationship meant; carrying skills and identity forward).

There is no session count; the therapist's contact follows the client's existing therapy and the programme's milestones. Move on when the client and family can state realistic expectations and safety rules (1 to 2), when the client is engaged and safe in the setting (3), and when the ending has been prepared and talked through (4 to 5). [synthesis]

3. Guiding principles

Safety and screening come first. Practical meaning: before referring a child, confirm the programme screens, trains and monitors mentors to at least EEP benchmark level. [source: EEP Standards 2, 3, 5]
Realistic expectations. Practical meaning: help clients and families anticipate both benefits and challenges; unmet expectations are a known route to failed matches. [source: EEP B.1.1, B.1.6; Spencer 2007 abstract]
Duration and stability matter; premature endings can harm. Practical meaning: weigh whether the client and family can sustain the commitment before a match starts. [source: Grossman and Rhodes 2002, via Scottish Mentoring Network guide]
Relationship quality is the engine. Practical meaning: track closeness, trust and enjoyment, not only attendance or goals. [source: Rhodes 2005 and Grossman and Rhodes 2002, via guide]
Developmental before prescriptive. Practical meaning: encourage mentors and young people to build trust and let the young person shape activities; matches where the mentor pressed an agenda early fared worse in a P/PV study. [source: Morrow and Styles 1995, via guide]
Mentoring is indirect. Practical meaning: involve parents and other adults; the mentor's influence travels through the young person's other relationships. [source: Rhodes model, via guide; EEP B.5.5]
Written commitments, permission and assent. Practical meaning: the parent's informed permission and the young person's own assent are separate; check both. [source: EEP B.2.10, E.2.8]
Mandatory reporting and risk policies bind everyone. Practical meaning: know the programme's rules on physical contact, digital contact, transport, money and overnight visits so that breaches can be recognised. [source: EEP B.3.3]
Planned closure. Practical meaning: talk about the ending from the start, not at the last meeting. [source: EEP Standard 6; NRPA closure guidance]
An apprenticeship is a job. Practical meaning: employment rights, paid training time and the employer's duties shape what an apprentice can ask for. [source: apprenticeship.gov; Open University employer responsibilities]
Wellbeing is a shared responsibility of employer and provider. Practical meaning: a wellbeing action plan and reasonable adjustments can be negotiated with the client's consent. [source: Skills Development Scotland / Penumbra guide]
Equality and adjustment duties. Practical meaning: in Great Britain, the Equality Act 2010 frames reasonable adjustments for mental health difficulties at work and study. [source: Skills Development Scotland / Penumbra guide]
Distinct roles. Practical meaning: the therapist is not the mentor, programme coordinator or workplace supervisor; information passes between roles only with consent or under safeguarding duties. [synthesis]
The client's formation is the client's own. Practical meaning: explore what mentors, masters and apprenticeships have meant, without idealising or dismissing them. [synthesis]
Cultural humility. Practical meaning: matching on race, ethnicity, gender and preference is part of the EEP criteria; ask what match characteristics matter to the client and family. [source: EEP B.4.1; synthesis]

4. Intervention inventory

The programme sources describe programme procedures rather than therapist techniques, so most items below are therapist-side procedures built around the published standards; each is marked by source. [source: EEP 4th ed.; synthesis where marked]

4.1 Assessing fit and readiness for a mentoring programme

Purpose / when: before a referral, when a child, parent, school or social worker suggests a mentor. Meta-analytic and P/PV findings suggest effects can be larger for higher-risk youth, but also that youth with abuse histories and older adolescents were more likely to have early-ending matches. [source: DuBois et al. 2002 and Grossman and Rhodes 2002, via Scottish Mentoring Network guide]
Steps: (1) Ask the young person what they would want from an adult outside the family, and whether they want one at all. (2) Ask the parent about expectations and their capacity to support regular contact over the programme's minimum term (the EEP default is one year). (3) Review attachment history, prior losses of adults, and current placement stability. (4) Identify whether the need is for friendship and role modelling (mentoring) or for treatment, tutoring or case management (other services). (5) Agree with the family whether to proceed and which programme type fits (community-based, school-based, group or peer). [synthesis, using EEP B.2.6-B.2.12]
Example language (illustrative): "A mentor is a grown-up volunteer who spends time with you regularly, usually for at least a year. What would make that good for you? What would make it hard?"
Watch for: a parent wanting a mentor to replace therapy or discipline; a young person agreeing only to please adults; a pattern of adults leaving that a further loss could repeat. Working: the young person can say in their own words what a mentor is for and what they want.

4.2 Evaluating a programme before referral

Purpose / when: before recommending any programme, especially an unfamiliar or informal one.
Steps: Ask the programme, or check its published policies, whether it: uses written mentor eligibility and disqualification criteria; interviews mentors face to face; runs comprehensive background checks (national records, sex offender and child abuse registries); takes references; delivers in-person pre-match training on ethics, safety and mandatory reporting; obtains parental permission; holds a documented first meeting with staff present; contacts the match regularly with child-safety questions; and has written closure, rematching and post-closure contact policies. [source: EEP Standards 2-6] For apprenticeships, ask whether the role is a genuine job with a contract covering the full programme, paid off-the-job training, a named workplace person responsible for learning, and regular progress reviews. [source: Open University employer responsibilities; apprenticeship.gov]
Example language (illustrative): "Before I suggest your programme to a family, could you tell me how mentors are screened and how often staff check in on a match?"
Watch for: vague answers about background checks; no staff contact after matching; no closure policy; unpaid "apprenticeships" without a contract. Working: you can name which benchmarks the programme meets and tell the family plainly.

4.3 Preparing the young person and family for a match

Purpose / when: after the family applies, before matching. The EEP lists mentee and parent training as enhancements covering purpose, requirements, roles, ethics, safety, starting the relationship and closure. [source: EEP E.3.4-E.3.7]
Steps: (1) Go over what the programme has told the family; fill gaps by suggesting questions for staff. (2) Rehearse the safety rules in age-appropriate words: what physical contact, messaging, gifts, money, car journeys and visits are allowed, and whom to tell if something feels wrong. (3) Separate the parent's permission from the child's assent; check the child's assent privately. (4) Name that the match will end one day and that endings are planned. (5) Discuss preferences for the mentor's characteristics, which programmes may consider. [source: EEP B.3.3, B.4.1, E.2.8; synthesis for the therapist's steps]
Example language (illustrative): "Your mentor has rules too. If they ever ask you to keep a secret from your mum or the programme, that is something to tell an adult you trust, and you will not be in trouble."
Watch for: a child who cannot say who to tell; parental pressure overriding the child's doubts; idealised fantasies of a rescuer. Working: the child can repeat two or three rules and the name of the programme contact.

4.4 Supporting the first meeting and match agreement

Purpose / when: around the programme's documented first meeting and the signed commitment agreement covering frequency, duration, roles and risk policies. [source: EEP B.4.2-B.4.4]
Steps: (1) Ask the young person what they would like to say or ask at the first meeting. (2) Anticipate anxiety: shyness, silence, or over-familiarity. (3) After the meeting, debrief: what went well, what was awkward, any concerns. (4) Ask whether the young person understood the agreement and feels able to keep it. [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "First meetings are often a bit awkward. What is one thing you would like your mentor to know about you?"
Watch for: the child not having been included in the agreement; a parent left out of an introduction the programme says should include them. Working: the child describes the mentor in neutral or positive terms and knows when they will next meet.

4.5 Consulting with parents and guardians during a match

Purpose / when: throughout; the parent's support influences match length and outcomes, and the EEP requires programmes to contact a responsible adult regularly. [source: EEP B.5.5; Rhodes model via guide]
Steps: (1) Ask about logistics (keeping appointments, transport, cancellations). (2) Explore the parent's feelings about another adult's place in the child's life, including rivalry or relief. (3) Encourage the parent to raise concerns with programme staff directly. (4) Support the parent to keep the mentor's role within the programme's rules. [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "Sometimes parents feel a mix of things when their child gets close to a mentor. What has it been like for you?"
Watch for: parents cancelling meetings as discipline; parents asking mentors to babysit or lend money; parental jealousy. Working: the parent speaks of the mentor as an ally and keeps the schedule.

4.6 Collaborating with programme staff

Purpose / when: with written consent from parent and, as appropriate, the young person, when the therapist's knowledge would help the match or the programme's monitoring would help therapy. Programmes are expected to provide resources and referrals to mentors, mentees and families. [source: EEP B.5.9]
Steps: (1) Agree with the family what will and will not be shared. (2) Contact the match support worker, not the mentor, for clinical matters. (3) Share only what helps the match (e.g. a trigger to avoid, a calming strategy) and never therapy content without consent. (4) Agree how concerns will be raised in each direction. (5) Document the consent and contacts. [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "With your agreement, I would tell the programme coordinator that loud places are hard for you, nothing about what we talk about here. Is that OK?"
Watch for: programme staff asking for diagnoses or records; a mentor contacting the therapist directly. Working: concerns are raised early through the agreed channel.

4.7 Tracking relationship quality in sessions

Purpose / when: throughout the match; relationship quality predicted match duration in the research the EEP draws on, and programmes monitor it. [source: Grossman and Rhodes 2002, via guide; EEP B.5.2]
Steps: (1) Ask regularly, briefly, about time with the mentor: what they did, whether it was fun, whether the young person felt listened to. (2) Note whether the young person shapes activities. (3) Note frequency drift (cancellations, long gaps). (4) Bring difficulties into session work early. A published closure-guidance source points to match-health tools from the National Mentoring Resource Center; licensed or programme tools are used as programmes direct. [source: NRPA closure guidance; synthesis for steps]
Example language (illustrative): "On a scale you choose, how close do you feel to your mentor at the moment? What would move it up one?"
Watch for: the mentor setting an agenda of improvement the young person resents (prescriptive style); flat, dutiful reports. Working: spontaneous stories about the mentor, plans made together.

4.8 Working with unmet expectations and match difficulties

Purpose / when: when either party is disappointed. Spencer's study of failed matches identified unrecognised or unaddressed expectations, mentors not acknowledging difficulties, and endings attributed to being "too busy" when the real issue was difficulty in the match. [source: Spencer 2007 abstract]
Steps: (1) Help the young person name what they hoped for and what has happened. (2) Distinguish ordinary awkwardness from a poor fit or a safety concern (if safety, go to 4.11). (3) Rehearse how to tell the mentor or staff what they would like to change. (4) Encourage the family to involve match support staff. (5) If the match is ending anyway, move to 4.9 or 4.10. [synthesis, informed by Spencer 2007]
Example language (illustrative): "It sounds like you expected your mentor to be more like a big brother, and it has felt more like homework. Would you want to tell them, or would you rather the coordinator helped?"
Watch for: self-blame ("they don't like me"); withdrawal from meetings as a test. Working: the young person can voice a wish and the match adjusts or ends with preparation.

4.9 Preparing for planned closure

Purpose / when: from the start, and intensively as the planned end approaches. Programmes discuss feelings about the ending, reasons for it, positive experiences, notice to the mentee, post-closure contact rules, a plan for the last meeting and possible rematching; exit interviews follow. [source: EEP B.6.1-B.6.9; NRPA closure guidance] Guidance notes that youth with adverse childhood experiences or neurodivergence may need extra time and planning. [source: NRPA closure guidance]
Steps: (1) Find out the programme's closure date and rules on later contact, including digital contact. (2) Talk about the ending ahead of time, more than once. (3) Help the young person decide what they want to say or give at the last meeting. (4) Review what they learned and what they will take with them. (5) Discuss rematching or other activities if the young person wants. (6) After the last meeting, process feelings. [synthesis built on the cited guidance]
Example language (illustrative): "Your time with your mentor finishes in a few weeks. What would you like your last meeting to be like?"
Watch for: acting out or pulling away before the end; a hidden plan to stay in contact against programme rules. Working: sadness with acceptance or satisfaction rather than anger or confusion, the distinction drawn in the Smith College framework that the closure guidance cites. [source: NRPA closure guidance, citing Silberstein and Spencer 2014]

4.10 Responding to unplanned or abrupt closure

Purpose / when: when a mentor moves, drops out, stops turning up, or the programme closes a match. Short matches have been linked to declines below control levels. [source: Grossman and Rhodes 2002, via guide]
Steps: (1) Find out from the family what the programme has said. (2) Give the young person clear, truthful information in age-appropriate words, without blaming them. (3) Explore meaning in light of earlier losses (abandonment, rejection). (4) Ask the programme (with consent) whether a closure conversation or letter from the mentor is possible, as programmes are expected to have a procedure for when one party cannot or will not take part. (5) Decide with the family about rematching, timing and readiness. [source for programme duties: EEP B.6.2-B.6.5; synthesis for therapist steps]
Example language (illustrative): "Your mentor stopping was about what happened in their life, not about something you did wrong. It still makes sense to feel hurt."
Watch for: self-blame, mood drop, school refusal, risk behaviour, reluctance to trust future adults. Working: the young person can tell the story of the ending without self-blame.

4.11 Safeguarding: recognising and acting on boundary breaches and disclosures

Purpose / when: whenever a young client describes a mentor or workplace adult breaching programme rules or behaving in a grooming, abusive or exploitative way. Programmes train on physical contact, contact protocols, digital and social media, overnight visits, transport, money, photographs, substance use and mandatory reporting. [source: EEP B.3.3; Montgomery County guidance] Employers of apprentices have a statutory duty to safeguard and to alert the provider to concerns. [source: Open University employer responsibilities]
Steps: (1) Listen calmly; do not promise secrecy; do not interview in detail. (2) Record the young person's words and the date. (3) Follow your service's safeguarding procedure and your jurisdiction's mandatory reporting law; contact children's social care or child protection, and police where a crime is suspected. (4) Tell the programme's or provider's safeguarding lead as procedure directs. (5) Support the young person and non-abusing parent through what follows. (6) If disclosures involve suicidality, assess risk by current standard practice; crisis lines include 988 (US) and Samaritans 116 123 (UK and Ireland). [source for programme duties: EEP B.3.3; synthesis for steps; Samaritans number per Skills Development Scotland / Penumbra guide]
Example language (illustrative): "Thank you for telling me. This is something I need to pass on to people whose job is to keep you safe. I will tell you what happens next."
Watch for: secrets, gifts, private messaging, meetings outside programme rules, an adult isolating the child from parents or staff. Working: the concern is reported promptly and the young person stays engaged with you.

4.12 Supporting an adult client who volunteers as a mentor

Purpose / when: when an adult client is considering, or is in, a mentoring role. Programmes recruit for fitting skills and motivations and describe challenges realistically. [source: EEP B.1.1-B.1.3]
Steps: (1) Explore motives (giving back, repairing one's own youth, loneliness, wanting to rescue). (2) Check capacity for the commitment the programme requires. (3) Review the programme's rules and the client's understanding of mandatory reporting. (4) Prepare for difficulty: a young person who is unresponsive, late or testing. (5) Encourage use of match support staff rather than going it alone. (6) Plan for the ending, including the client's own feelings. [synthesis, using EEP Standards 1, 3, 5, 6]
Example language (illustrative): "What would it mean to you if your mentee didn't seem grateful for months?"
Watch for: over-involvement (money, gifts, contact outside rules), using the match to meet the client's own needs, burnout, abrupt exit framed as being too busy. Working: the client brings difficulties to staff and keeps within the role.

4.13 Apprenticeship decision-making and fit

Purpose / when: when a young person or career-changer is weighing an apprenticeship against study or other work.
Steps: (1) Clarify interests, values and preferred learning style (hands-on, mixed with study). (2) Check that the client understands it is a paid job with training, a contract, study time and an assessment at the end. [source: apprenticeship.gov; Open University employer responsibilities] (3) Explore family expectations and status beliefs about vocational routes. (4) Identify supports needed (English or maths study, adjustments). (5) Encourage the client to ask employers about mentoring, supervision and wellbeing support. [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "When you picture a typical day in that job, what parts do you look forward to and what parts worry you?"
Watch for: choosing to escape school or family conflict without interest in the trade; family shame about not going to university. Working: the client can state reasons that are their own.

4.14 Building a wellbeing action plan with an apprentice

Purpose / when: for an apprentice with a mental health difficulty or high stress. The Penumbra guide for Skills Development Scotland describes a Wellbeing Action Plan recording self-care approaches, early warning signs, workplace triggers, effects on performance, support needed from the manager, agreed actions and a review date. [source: Skills Development Scotland / Penumbra guide]
Steps: (1) Work through each area in session in the client's words. (2) Decide what the client wants to share with the manager or provider. (3) Rehearse the conversation. (4) Agree a review point in therapy after the plan is discussed at work. [synthesis for steps]
Example language (illustrative): "What is the first sign you notice when things are starting to slip? Would you want your manager to know that sign?"
Watch for: the plan being used for performance management against the client; over-disclosure. Working: the manager responds with agreed adjustments and the client feels safer.

4.15 Reasonable adjustments, Access to Work and disclosure decisions

Purpose / when: when a health condition, disability or neurodivergence affects work or study. In Great Britain, the Equality Act 2010 frames reasonable adjustments; the Access to Work Mental Health Support Service offers confidential support to employees whose mental health affects work; providers mention Access to Work for apprentices with disabilities. [source: Skills Development Scotland / Penumbra guide; Open University employer responsibilities] US equivalents (e.g. ADA accommodations) apply in US programmes. [uncertain: not verified]
Steps: (1) Weigh pros and cons of disclosure with the client. (2) Identify concrete adjustments (time for appointments, study arrangements, task changes). (3) Help the client draft the request. (4) Provide a supporting letter if asked and appropriate, limited to functional needs. [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "You do not have to share a diagnosis to ask for an adjustment. What would actually make the week workable?"
Watch for: fear of losing the job; employers asking for clinical detail. Working: an agreed adjustment is in place and attendance stabilises.

4.16 Consultation with employer and training provider; progress reviews

Purpose / when: with the client's consent, when problems at work or with study threaten progress. One provider holds quarterly tripartite reviews with apprentice, line manager and provider tutor. [source: Open University employer responsibilities]
Steps: (1) Agree with the client what will be shared and with whom. (2) Help the client prepare points for the next progress review. (3) If the client wants you involved, contact the provider's support or safeguarding staff rather than the line manager by default. (4) Keep the therapist's role separate from performance judgements. [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "What would you want to say at your review about the off-the-job hours you have not been getting?"
Watch for: off-the-job training time not being given; the client being used as cheap labour; the client's reluctance to complain. Working: the client raises concerns and the plan is adjusted.

4.17 Assessment and referral when learning or developmental needs surface

Purpose / when: when a mentee or apprentice shows signs of an unassessed learning difficulty, ADHD, autism, language disorder or mental illness, and the setting has attributed problems to motivation or attitude. [synthesis]
Steps: (1) Gather observations from the client and, with consent, from the family, school, provider or mentor. (2) Screen within your competence; refer for specialist assessment (educational psychology, neuropsychology, psychiatry, speech and language) where indicated. (3) With consent, ask the provider about learning support and, for end-point assessment, reasonable adjustments, which assessment bodies publish guidance on. [source for EPA adjustments: Open University employer responsibilities] (4) Do not let a programme's ethos of character or effort delay assessment. [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "You have said reading the workbook takes you far longer than others. That is worth getting properly assessed, because there may be support you are entitled to."
Watch for: a long pattern of being called lazy; shame. Working: an assessment is booked and adjustments follow.

4.18 Supporting an apprentice through gateway and end-point assessment

Purpose / when: as the gateway approaches, where the line manager confirms competence and the provider confirms readiness for end-point assessment. [source: Open University employer responsibilities]
Steps: (1) Map what the assessment involves, from the client's provider information. (2) Treat performance anxiety with your usual methods (e.g. cognitive and exposure-based work for test anxiety, with consent). (3) Plan for adjustments if eligible (4.15, 4.17). (4) Prepare for both outcomes, including a resit. [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "What is the worst-case story you tell yourself about the assessment, and what would actually happen next if it came true?"
Watch for: avoidance of the gateway; catastrophic predictions linked to family expectations. Working: the client attends and can reflect on the result.

4.19 Difficulties with the workplace mentor: power, ruptures and harassment

Purpose / when: when an apprentice describes conflict, humiliation, exclusion, bullying or sexual harassment by a supervisor or colleague. Employers carry a statutory safeguarding duty and should have clear supervision and mentoring systems and grievance procedures. [source: Open University employer responsibilities] Mocking or judgemental behaviour about mental health is not to be tolerated. [source: Skills Development Scotland / Penumbra guide]
Steps: (1) Distinguish ordinary corrective feedback from abuse of power. (2) Explore options: speaking to the mentor, to the provider's tutor, to HR or safeguarding staff, a grievance, or union advice. (3) Rehearse the conversation. (4) If the apprentice is under 18 or at risk, follow safeguarding procedure (4.11). (5) Help the client keep a dated record. [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "Learning a trade can involve tough feedback. Being shouted at in front of others every day is different. Which is this?"
Watch for: normalised initiation or hazing (a Domain XVI matter; cross-refer, not described here); fear of losing the job. Working: the client acts on a chosen option and the behaviour stops or the client is supported to move.

4.20 Dual roles: the therapist as mentor, volunteer or workplace supervisor

Purpose / when: when a therapist volunteers in a mentoring programme, mentors trainees, or is asked by a client's programme to become involved.
Steps: (1) Do not mentor your own client or a client's family member. (2) Complete the programme's screening and training like any volunteer; your clinical qualification does not substitute. (3) Keep therapy and mentoring roles separate; if a mentee needs therapy, refer elsewhere. (4) Check employer, insurer and professional-body positions on volunteering roles. [synthesis] The APA Ethics Code addresses multiple relationships in Standard 3.05. [source: APA Ethics Code]
Example language (illustrative): "I can't be your mentor as well as your therapist, but I can help you get ready to meet one."
Watch for: blurred confidentiality; clinical interpretation of a mentee. Working: roles stay distinct and the programme knows which hat you wear.

4.21 Withdrawal and early-leaving decisions

Purpose / when: when a mentee wants to quit a match or an apprentice wants to leave.
Steps: (1) Clarify the reason (fit, safety, workload, wellbeing, family). (2) Rule out a safeguarding issue (4.11). (3) Consider what adjustment or support might change the picture (4.8, 4.14, 4.15). (4) If leaving, plan a structured ending: for mentoring, the programme's closure procedure; for an apprenticeship, employer and provider notification as required. [source: EEP B.6.1-B.6.3; Open University employer responsibilities] (5) Process the ending without framing it as failure. [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "Leaving can be the right choice. Let's make sure it's a choice, not an escape from something we could fix."
Watch for: repetitive quitting patterns; leaving because of an untreated mental health difficulty. Working: the decision is reasoned and the ending is planned.

4.22 Exploring the client's formative experience of mentors and apprenticeship

Purpose / when: with adult clients whose identity was shaped by a mentor, master or apprenticeship, or by its loss or abuse. [synthesis]
Steps: (1) Invite the story: who taught them, what was passed on, how the relationship ended. (2) Explore internalised voices (encouraging or harsh). (3) Name losses (a mentor who left or died, an apprenticeship cut short) and grieve them. (4) Where the relationship was exploitative or abusive, treat it as such; follow reporting duties if others may be at risk. (5) Consider whether the client now wants to mentor others (4.12). [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "When you are doing your work and get stuck, whose voice do you hear? What does it say?"
Watch for: idealisation that blocks seeing harm; shame about a vocational path. Working: the client can hold what was given and what was lacking.

5. Handling problems

The programme sources address problems at programme level (screening, monitoring, closure). Guidance on the therapist's response is synthesis unless a source is named.

Young person stuck or disengaged from the match. Programmes regularly judge whether a match should continue or close. [source: EEP B.5.7] Ask what the young person wants changed; separate a poor fit from ordinary early awkwardness; encourage the family to involve match support; support a planned closure rather than drift. [synthesis]
Resistance: the young person never wanted a mentor. Return to assent (4.1, 4.3); a parent's permission does not replace a child's willingness. If the child refuses, help the family accept that and consider other supports. [source for assent: EEP E.2.8; synthesis]
Overwhelm: an apprentice drowning in work plus study. Use the wellbeing action plan (4.14); check whether paid off-the-job training time is being given as the apprenticeship requires; help the client raise it at a progress review. [source: Open University employer responsibilities; Skills Development Scotland / Penumbra guide; synthesis]
Non-adherence: missed meetings, missed study, cancellations. Look for the practical (transport, shifts, caring roles) before the motivational; involve the family or provider with consent; for mentoring, frequent cancellations are a known route to early closure, so act early. [source: Spencer 2007 abstract; synthesis]
Rupture in therapy over the programme. A client may feel the therapist is siding with parents, the programme or the employer. Name the rupture, restate your role (4.20), and confirm that you share nothing without consent except under safeguarding duties. [synthesis]
Mentor wants personal contact outside the rules. Contact outside programme rules, including digital and social media, is a breach of the programme's written policy; inform staff (with consent, or under safeguarding duties when risk is present). [source: EEP B.3.3, B.6.9; synthesis]
Abrupt mentor exit after a history of losses. Treat as a potential attachment injury; see 4.10; consider delaying rematching until the young person is ready. [synthesis, informed by Grossman and Rhodes 2002 via guide]
Parent sabotage or rivalry. Work with the parent's feelings (4.5); invite programme staff to restate roles. [synthesis]
Programme falls below benchmarks. If you learn a programme does not screen, train or monitor, tell the family plainly and suggest alternatives; for a concern about a specific adult, follow safeguarding procedure. [source: EEP Standards 2, 3, 5; synthesis]
Exploitative "apprenticeship". An unpaid or contract-free role without training is not a genuine apprenticeship under the rules sources describe; help the client seek advice from the training provider, a union or employment-rights services. [source: apprenticeship.gov; Open University employer responsibilities; synthesis]
Harassment, hazing or initiation in a trade. Treat as workplace harm; hazing belongs to Domain XVI (cross-refer); follow safeguarding steps for under-18s or adults at risk (4.11, 4.19). [synthesis]
Suicidal thoughts in a mentee or apprentice. Assess risk by current standard practice and create a safety plan; urgent signposting to a GP or crisis service is recommended when concerns involve severe symptoms or suicidal thoughts; crisis lines include 988 (US) and Samaritans 116 123 (UK and Ireland). Programme staff and mentors are trained to report suicidality; coordinate with them with consent or when duty requires. [source: Skills Development Scotland / Penumbra guide; EEP B.3.3; synthesis]
Delayed assessment of learning needs. When a setting attributes difficulties to attitude, act per 4.17. [synthesis]
Therapist pulled into the mentor or supervisor role. Hold the boundary; refer the client to the programme's staff; see 4.20. [synthesis]
Cultural mismatch in a match. Matching criteria include race, ethnicity, gender and preference; if the young person or family feels misunderstood, help them raise it with staff and consider rematching. [source: EEP B.4.1, B.6.5; synthesis]
Ending grief that persists. If loss of a mentor or apprenticeship triggers a broader depressive or grief reaction, assess and treat in the usual way. [synthesis]

Sources

Publications cited:

Garringer, M., Kupersmidt, J., Rhodes, J., Stelter, R., and Tai, T. (2015). Elements of Effective Practice for Mentoring (4th ed.). MENTOR: The National Mentoring Partnership.
Tierney, J. P., Grossman, J. B., and Resch, N. L. (1995; reissued 2000). Making a Difference: An Impact Study of Big Brothers/Big Sisters. Public/Private Ventures.
DuBois, D. L., Portillo, N., Rhodes, J. E., Silverthorn, N., and Valentine, J. C. (2011). How effective are mentoring programs for youth? A systematic assessment of the evidence. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 12(2), 57-91. doi:10.1177/1529100611414806
Spencer, R. (2007). "It's not what I expected": A qualitative study of youth mentoring relationship failures. Journal of Adolescent Research, 22(4), 331-354.
Cited via the Scottish Mentoring Network guide (originals [uncertain: not verified]): DuBois, D. L., Holloway, B. E., Valentine, J. C., and Cooper, H. (2002). Effectiveness of mentoring programs for youth: A meta-analytic review. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30(2). Grossman, J. B., and Rhodes, J. E. (2002). The test of time: Predictors and effects of duration in youth mentoring programs. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30(2). Rhodes, J. E. (2005). A model of youth mentoring. In D. L. DuBois and M. J. Karcher (Eds.), Handbook of Youth Mentoring. Sage. Morrow, K. V., and Styles, M. B. (1995). Public/Private Ventures.
Cited via the NRPA closure guidance (original [uncertain: not verified]): Silberstein and Spencer (2014), Smith College School of Social Work.
APA Ethics Code, Standard 3.05 Multiple Relationships

Cross-references: VI 131 Mentoring; Domain XVI for hazing and initiation harms.

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