African-centred rites-of-passage programmes

1. Introduction

Version followed: the African-centred (Africentric) rites-of-passage programme model as the US social-work, psychology and youth-development literature describes it (Gilbert, Harvey and Belgrave 2009; Pinckney et al. 2011; Washington et al. 2017; Okwumabua et al. 2014), organised around Manu Ampim's naming of five major African initiation rites (birth, adulthood, marriage, eldership, ancestorship). Ampim's own description of the five rites, on his site The Five Major African Initiation Rites, is cited here only by its title and the stage names as a secondary source reports them [uncertain: secondary, unverified].

African-centred rites-of-passage programmes are not a psychotherapy. They are community, church, school, recreation and social-service programmes, mainly in the African American community, that adapt African socialisation practices marking transitions in life, above all the move from childhood to adulthood. Pinckney et al. (2011) describe them as "a systematic series of lessons, workshops, and discussions" teaching young people about their ancestry, and note they are often limited to families, churches or private groups. The Let the Circle Be Unbroken programme, for example, teaches ideology, education, training and culture before a celebration that marks the young person's transition to the next stage [source: CORE record, Let the Circle Be Unbroken]. Programme authors frame change through culture: a value system such as the Nguzo Saba and the Maat tradition is said to build spiritualism, interdependence and a sense of purpose, raise sociopolitical consciousness and help "mitigate historical trauma" [source: Gilbert, Harvey and Belgrave 2009, YouthREX summary]. These are the authors' own framings, attributed, not established mechanisms.

The psychotherapist's work is usually not to run the rite. It is to help a young person or family decide about and prepare for a programme, to support them through it and afterwards, to collaborate with the elders and facilitators who hold the programme's cultural authority, to work with what the rite means in the client's life (including a rite missed or refused), and, where the therapist is also trained within such a programme, to manage that dual role [synthesis].

Evidence status in one line: a systematic review of eight Africentric programmes reported gains in racial/ethnic identity, cultural knowledge, self-esteem, school behaviour and lower depression and risk behaviour, but individual studies are small and mostly pre-post [source: Gilbert, Harvey and Belgrave 2009, YouthREX summary; Okwumabua et al. 2014 (n = 39, exploratory); Thomas, Davidson and McAdoo 2008 (n = 74, comparison group)].

2. Framework

Two frameworks are layered in this literature; programmes vary and no single manual governs them [uncertain: not verified].

Ampim's five major initiation rites (the life course). As a secondary source reports Ampim's list: (1) rite to birth, (2) rite to adulthood, (3) rite to marriage, (4) rite to eldership, (5) rite to ancestorship [source: Wikipedia, Rite of passage; uncertain: secondary, unverified]. Ampim's own descriptions of each stage's goals and content are not reproduced here [uncertain: not verified]. In practice, most programmes in the evaluation literature address the rite to adulthood for adolescents; birth, marriage, eldership and ancestorship appear as the wider life-course frame that places the young person in a line from ancestors to elders [synthesis].

The passage itself (separation, transition, incorporation). The classic three-phase structure of a rite of passage is van Gennep's (1909): separation, a liminal transition, and incorporation; Turner (1967, 1969) elaborated the liminal period [source: Wikipedia, Rite of passage, for the editions; uncertain: secondary, unverified]. Programmes follow a parallel arc: recruitment and preparation, a period of instruction with elders and mentors, then a public celebration or ceremony that marks completion and welcomes the young person into a new status [source: CORE record, Let the Circle Be Unbroken; synthesis for the mapping].

Format. Delivered in groups (often single-gender: boys' programmes such as Let the Circle Be Unbroken and girls' programmes such as YES!), in after-school, community, church, foster-care and recreation settings, with adult male or female elders and mentors [source: Okwumabua et al. 2014; Thomas, Davidson and McAdoo 2008; Washington et al. 2017; Gavazzi, Alford and McKenry 1996; Pinckney et al. 2011]. A foster-care version runs as an adjunct to an independent-living programme [source: Gavazzi, Alford and McKenry 1996]. Sample ages in one evaluation were 8 to 16 [source: Okwumabua et al. 2014]. Session counts and programme lengths vary and are not stated here [uncertain: not verified].

Criteria for moving between phases. Programmes mark completion with a celebration of the transition [source: CORE record]; specific completion criteria are set by each programme and its elders [uncertain: not verified]. For the therapist, the useful criteria are clinical: the young person's free assent, family agreement, safety (no hazing), and readiness to reintegrate at home and school after the ceremony [synthesis].

Related models. A four-step model of contemporary "reafrikanization" (rediscovery, redefinition, revitalization, restoration) places rites of passage within a wider community process of respiritualisation and family roles across the life cycle [source: article at informahealthcare.com, J005v16n01_07; authors and year uncertain: not verified]. Earlier programme literature includes Warfield-Coppock (1992), Africentric theory and applications, Vol. II: Advances in the adolescent rites of passage, and Hill (1992), Coming of age: African-American male rites-of-passage [uncertain: not verified].

3. Guiding principles

Cultural authority belongs to the community. Elders and programme leaders, not the therapist, hold authority over the rite's content and meaning; the therapist supports and collaborates [synthesis; elders' role: Washington et al. 2017].
Culture as a strength and protective factor. Ethnic identity, collectivism and racism awareness are treated as assets to build, not as problems [source: Thomas, Davidson and McAdoo 2008; Gilbert, Harvey and Belgrave 2009].
Values-based formation. The Nguzo Saba's seven principles (unity, self-determination, collective work and responsibility, cooperative economics, purpose, creativity, faith) and Maat values are taught and lived; ask what they mean to the client rather than assuming [source: Gilbert, Harvey and Belgrave 2009, YouthREX summary].
Historical trauma and collective disenfranchisement are named. Practitioners take a holistic view that includes them; practically, this means asking about racism and its effects as part of assessment [source: Gilbert, Harvey and Belgrave 2009, YouthREX summary].
Community, not individual, is the frame. Rites link the person to family, community and, for many participants, a spiritual world including ancestors; describe this as the tradition holds it, neither as fact nor dismissed [source: Wikipedia, Rite of passage; uncertain: secondary, unverified; synthesis].
Intergenerational mentoring. Unrelated adult men and women serve as elders and mentors; their recruitment, training and retention matter [source: Washington et al. 2017].
The client is the author of meaning. Whatever the programme teaches, the therapist helps the client decide what the rite means to them [synthesis].
Voluntary participation and assent. A young person's assent is sought alongside parental consent; an unwilling participant is not a programme failure but a clinical question [synthesis].
No harm in the name of tradition. Hazing and any initiation involving pain, humiliation or bodily cutting is out of scope and belongs to Domain XVI; the therapist screens for it before referral [synthesis; cross-refer Domain XVI].
No secret content. Where programmes or allied traditions hold private or initiatory material, the therapist does not ask the client to disclose it and does not reproduce it [synthesis].
Cultural humility. Use the DSM-5-TR Cultural Formulation Interview and its supplementary module on spirituality, religion and moral traditions to learn the client's own view [uncertain: DSM-5-TR wording not verified]; where the problem centres on the rite or faith, "Religious or Spiritual Problem" can be recorded under Z65.8 [source: ICD-10-CM Z65.8 (Unbound Medicine)].
Boundaries and dual roles. A therapist who also serves as a programme elder or mentor manages a multiple relationship (APA Ethics Code, Standard 3.05) [source: APA Ethics Code]; competence, consent and confidentiality in that role are [synthesis].
Safeguarding first with children. Consent, assent, mandatory reporting where relevant, and no identifying details of minors in any record shared with the programme [synthesis].

4. Intervention inventory

The programme literature describes what programmes teach (values, culture, ancestry, life skills, a closing celebration) but publishes little on therapist procedures; the therapist-side procedures below are therefore mostly marked [synthesis], with programme content attributed where sourced.

4.1 Exploring the request and what the rite means to the client

Purpose: clarify who wants the programme (young person, parent, school, court, foster-care service) and what it means to each. Use at first contact.
Steps: (1) Ask who suggested the programme and why now. (2) Ask the young person, separately where appropriate, what they know of it and what they hope or fear. (3) Ask the parent or carer what passage they want to mark and what they hope changes. (4) Note gaps between the two accounts as material, not a problem to settle. (5) Summarise back the meanings in each person's words. [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "Your mum talks about this as becoming a man in the family's eyes. What does it mean to you, in your own words?"
Watch for: the programme being used as discipline or as a substitute for needed treatment; a young person agreeing only to please. Working when each person can name their own meaning and the differences are speakable.

4.2 Cultural Formulation Interview with the spirituality, religion and moral traditions module

Purpose: understand the client's cultural identity, the role of African heritage, spirituality and community in their life, and how they see the problem. Use at assessment and when the rite becomes central.
Steps: (1) Use the core CFI domains (cultural definition of the problem, perceptions of cause and context, cultural factors in coping, help-seeking). (2) Add the supplementary module on spirituality, religion and moral traditions where faith, ancestors or values are salient. (3) Ask about experiences of racism and community history as part of context. (4) Record the client's own terms. (5) Where the difficulty centres on a rite or a loss of faith, consider recording "Religious or Spiritual Problem" under Z65.8. [DSM-5-TR wording uncertain: not verified; Z65.8 source: ICD-10-CM (Unbound Medicine); racism and historical trauma: Gilbert, Harvey and Belgrave 2009]
Example language (illustrative): "Some families draw on African heritage, church, or ancestors when life changes. Where do those fit for you, if at all?"
Watch for: assuming every Black client identifies with Africentric frameworks; some will not, and some families are Christian or Muslim and integrate or reject these elements differently. Working when the client corrects your assumptions freely.

4.3 Consent and assent conversation

Purpose: secure parental consent and the young person's own assent to participation and to any therapist–programme contact.
Steps: (1) Explain what the therapist knows and does not know about the specific programme. (2) Ask the young person directly whether they want to take part, and what would make it a no. (3) Agree what, if anything, the therapist may share with programme staff, in writing. (4) Explain limits of confidentiality and safeguarding duties. (5) Revisit assent at each stage. [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "You can say no to this, and you can change your mind later. If you do, we'll work out together how to tell your family."
Watch for: assent given under family or court pressure; a young person who cannot say no in front of a parent. Working when the young person can state their own reasons.

4.4 Evaluating a programme before referral

Purpose: check safety and quality before recommending a programme.
Steps: (1) Ask the programme for a written description of its aims, curriculum, ages served, group format and closing ceremony. (2) Ask how elders and mentors are recruited, vetted (background checks) and trained (recruitment and training of men as mentors is a recognised issue: Washington et al. 2017). (3) Ask for safeguarding, supervision and complaints policies, and who the young person can go to if worried. (4) Ask directly whether any activity involves physical ordeal, humiliation, secrecy from parents, or bodily marking; any yes is a stop (cross-refer Domain XVI on hazing). (5) Ask about any outdoor or residential component and its risk management, insurance and staff ratios. (6) Ask about cost, access and adaptations. [synthesis except where cited]
Example language (illustrative): "Before I suggest this to the family, could you tell me how your mentors are chosen and trained, and what happens if a young person raises a concern?"
Watch for: reluctance to share safeguarding policies; insistence on secrecy from parents; leaders who describe toughness or humiliation as part of becoming an adult. Working when policies are clear and the programme welcomes parental involvement.

4.5 Screening for hazing and harmful initiation

Purpose: ensure the young person is not exposed to hazing or other harmful practices sometimes attached to initiations elsewhere. Use before referral and at each check-in.
Steps: (1) Ask the young person, privately, open questions about what happens in sessions. (2) Ask whether anyone has told them to keep anything secret from parents. (3) If hazing, coercion or bodily harm is disclosed, follow safeguarding procedures and refer to Domain XVI for clinical handling; do not describe or evaluate the practice with the client as if it were legitimate. [synthesis; cross-refer Domain XVI]
Example language (illustrative): "Has anything in the group made you feel scared, ashamed, or told to keep a secret?"
Watch for: sudden reluctance to talk about the group, unexplained injuries, fear. Working when the young person reports openly and feels safe.

4.6 Collaborating with elders and programme leaders

Purpose: coordinate support while respecting the elders' cultural authority.
Steps: (1) Contact only with written consent and the young person's assent. (2) Introduce yourself as a support to the young person's participation, not as an assessor of the tradition. (3) Share only what was agreed; never share clinical detail beyond that. (4) Ask how the programme marks progress and what the young person may find hard. (5) Agree how concerns will be raised in both directions. [synthesis; elders' role: Washington et al. 2017]
Example language (illustrative): "I'm here to support him through your programme. What would be most helpful for me to know, and what should I leave to you?"
Watch for: pressure to report on the young person's private sessions; role confusion. Working when both sides know their lanes.

4.7 Preparing the young person (separation phase)

Purpose: prepare for leaving the familiar status of childhood and joining a group, in van Gennep's terms the separation phase [van Gennep framing: uncertain: secondary, unverified].
Steps: (1) Walk through what the programme has said will happen. (2) Elicit hopes, fears and what they want to gain. (3) Rehearse coping with group settings, new adults and public speaking at the ceremony if relevant. (4) Identify who they can talk to inside and outside the programme. [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "What would you want to be able to say about yourself when this is over?"
Watch for: high social anxiety, a trauma history with group or authority figures, or neurodivergent needs that the programme should be told about (with consent). Working when the young person can describe the plan and a support person.

4.8 Preparing and involving the family

Purpose: align family expectations and address conflict. Programmes sit within family roles across the life cycle [source: article at informahealthcare.com, J005v16n01_07; uncertain: authors not verified].
Steps: (1) Meet the family to clarify roles: who attends, who sponsors, who speaks at the ceremony. (2) Explore disagreements (one parent supportive, another opposed; different religious commitments; mixed-heritage families). (3) Help the family agree what success means. (4) Plan how the family will recognise the young person's new status at home. [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "Dad, you see this as a return to roots; Grandma, you worry it pulls away from church. Can we look at what each of you wants for him?"
Watch for: the young person caught between adults; the rite becoming a proxy for other family conflicts. Working when the family can name a shared aim.

4.9 Working with the Nguzo Saba and programme values in session

Purpose: link what the programme teaches to the client's goals. The Nguzo Saba's seven principles and Maat values are described by programme authors as building interdependence, purpose and behaviour change [source: Gilbert, Harvey and Belgrave 2009, YouthREX summary].
Steps: (1) Ask which principle the young person has been taught most recently. (2) Ask where it shows up, or is hard, in their life this week. (3) Choose one concrete action that expresses it (e.g. a collective-responsibility task at home). (4) Review next session. [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "Your group talked about self-determination. Where in your life right now do you want more say?"
Watch for: values used to shame ("you're failing the community"); rote recitation without personal meaning. Working when the young person connects a principle to their own choices.

4.10 Building cultural assets: identity, collectivism, racism awareness

Purpose: support the cultural assets that a school-based girls' programme targeted (ethnic identity, collectivist orientation, racism awareness, liberatory youth activism) [source: Thomas, Davidson and McAdoo 2008].
Steps: (1) Explore the young person's sense of their heritage and what they are learning. (2) Explore experiences of racism and how they cope. (3) Distinguish awareness that empowers from hopelessness. (4) Identify collective action or community roles the young person values. [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "When you learned that history in group, what did it stir up: pride, anger, something else?"
Watch for: distress from racial-trauma material needing trauma-focused care; identity questions for mixed-heritage young people. Working when identity talk increases agency.

4.11 Check-ins during the programme (liminal phase)

Purpose: support the young person while they are "betwixt and between" statuses, as Turner described liminality [source: Wikipedia, Rite of passage, citing Turner 1967; uncertain: secondary, unverified].
Steps: (1) Brief regular check-ins on how the group, mentors and tasks are going. (2) Normalise confusion and ambivalence. (3) Repeat the hazing and safety screen (4.5). (4) Track school, home and mood changes. [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "It's normal to feel in between right now, not a kid, not yet what you're becoming. How's that sitting with you?"
Watch for: withdrawal, conformity at any cost, or conflict with a mentor. Working when the young person reflects on the experience rather than only reporting it.

4.12 Debriefing after the ceremony and supporting incorporation

Purpose: consolidate the new status after the public celebration that marks the transition [ceremony: CORE record, Let the Circle Be Unbroken]; aftercare and reincorporation are where gains are kept or lost [synthesis; Bell 2003 on van Gennep: uncertain: not verified].
Steps: (1) Invite the young person to tell the story of the ceremony and what it meant. (2) Identify what has changed in how they see themselves. (3) Plan how family, school and friends will recognise the change. (4) Identify ongoing contact with mentors or alumni. (5) Name any let-down after the event. [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "Now that your family has seen you stand up there, what do you want to be different at home this month?"
Watch for: expectations at home that have not changed (still treated as a child); post-event low mood. Working when the new status is visible in daily roles.

4.13 Life-course mapping with the five rites

Purpose: use Ampim's five rites (birth, adulthood, marriage, eldership, ancestorship) as a frame for a genogram or timeline of the family's passages [stages: Wikipedia, citing Ampim; uncertain: secondary, unverified; mapping method: synthesis].
Steps: (1) Draw a timeline or genogram. (2) Mark which passages were ritually marked for each generation and which were not. (3) Ask what each marking, or its absence, meant. (4) Locate the client's current passage. [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "Who in your family was recognised as an elder, and how did people know?"
Watch for: family losses, migration and disrupted rites emerging; avoid implying a correct sequence. Working when the client sees their passage in a family story.

4.14 Working with ancestors and ancestorship

Purpose: engage the meaning of ancestors, which some participants and traditions hold as a living connection; attributed to the tradition, neither stated as fact nor dismissed [synthesis].
Steps: (1) Ask how the client relates to ancestors, if at all. (2) Explore grief, pride or burden in that relationship. (3) Where the client wishes, include ancestor-honouring practices they already use. (4) Refer to Domain XV guides on ancestor and mourning rites (113, 112) for grief work. [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "When you think of your grandfather as an ancestor now, what do you feel he'd want you to carry?"
Watch for: unresolved or prolonged grief; distress the client reads as spiritual that may need clinical assessment, without pathologising belief. Working when the connection steadies rather than burdens.

4.15 Grief or shame over a missed or refused rite; therapeutic ritual

Purpose: help a client who never had a rite, left a programme, or refused one. Clinicians who co-design rituals with clients include van der Hart and Imber-Black and Roberts [uncertain: not verified]; the client is always the author.
Steps: (1) Explore what was missed and what it would have given. (2) Distinguish grief, shame and relief. (3) If the client wishes, co-design a small personal or family ritual marking the passage, with the client choosing every element. (4) Invite community or religious leaders only if the client wants. [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "If you could mark becoming an adult in a way that is truly yours, what would it include and who would be there?"
Watch for: the therapist imposing a ritual; imitation of sacred content the client has no authority to use. Working when the client owns the design.

4.16 LGBTQ+ and gender-diverse young people in single-gender programmes

Purpose: many programmes are organised by gender (boys' and girls' programmes: Okwumabua et al. 2014; Thomas, Davidson and McAdoo 2008); gender-diverse youth may need advocacy or alternatives [synthesis].
Steps: (1) Ask privately how the young person feels about the group's gender framing. (2) With consent, ask the programme about its inclusion practice. (3) Explore alternatives or a self-authored rite (4.15). (4) Support the young person with any family conflict. [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "Some of the talk about manhood in group might not fit how you see yourself. Is that something we should think about?"
Watch for: outing risk; programmes teaching rigid gender roles. Working when the young person feels safe to choose.

4.17 Disability, access and cost

Purpose: remove barriers to participation [synthesis].
Steps: (1) Ask about physical, sensory, learning or neurodivergent needs. (2) With consent, discuss adaptations with the programme. (3) Ask about fees, uniforms or ceremony costs and help the family find options. [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "What would need to change for this to work for you, and can I ask them about it?"
Watch for: exclusion presented as tradition; family shame about cost. Working when barriers are named and handled.

4.18 The therapist as elder or mentor: managing the dual role

Purpose: some clinicians also serve as programme mentors; programmes need trained adult mentors [source: Washington et al. 2017].
Steps: (1) Do not mentor your own clients in the programme; refer clients to other mentors. (2) Assess the multiple relationship under APA Ethics Code Standard 3.05. (3) Clarify in writing with the programme that you are acting as mentor, not therapist. (4) Check insurance cover for the non-clinical role. (5) Seek consultation. [Standard 3.05: APA Ethics Code; other steps: synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "In this group I'm here as a mentor, not as anyone's counsellor. If you want counselling, I'll help you find someone."
Watch for: participants disclosing clinical material to you in the group; blurred confidentiality. Working when roles stay clear.

4.19 Safeguarding and mandatory reporting

Purpose: protect children in programme settings [synthesis].
Steps: (1) Know the local mandatory reporting duties. (2) Tell the young person and family at the start what you must report. (3) If abuse, hazing, forced or child marriage, or other harm is disclosed, follow safeguarding procedures and legal duties; cross-refer Domain XVI. (4) Never put a minor's name or identifying detail in any shared document. [synthesis]
Example language (illustrative): "What you tell me stays private unless I'm worried you or someone else is being hurt. Then I'd need to tell someone who can help, and I'd tell you first."
Watch for: community loyalty discouraging reports. Working when the young person knows where to go.

5. Handling problems

The programme sources do not address clinical difficulties; all guidance in this section is [synthesis] unless a source is named.

The young person does not want to take part. Treat refusal as information. Meet separately, explore reasons (fear, identity, peer image, faith, gender fit), then help the family hear them. Offer alternatives: a later start, a different programme, or a self-authored rite (4.15). Do not act as the family's persuader. [synthesis]
The family is split. Map each adult's hope and fear (4.8); look for the shared aim (e.g. the young person's wellbeing and belonging); where faith differences are central, offer, with consent, a joint conversation with the family's religious leader. [synthesis]
Stuck: participation without meaning. If the young person attends but cannot say what it means, slow down with 4.1 and 4.9; ask about one moment that stood out. Rote recitation is not a failure, but it is not yet incorporation. [synthesis]
Overwhelm from historical or racial-trauma material. Pause, ground, and assess; programme authors frame Africentric work as addressing historical trauma [source: Gilbert, Harvey and Belgrave 2009], but acute distress needs trauma-focused clinical care alongside the programme. Coordinate pacing with programme leaders if the young person consents. [synthesis]
Conformity and group pressure. Group initiations can produce strong loyalty and pressure to conform; experimental work on severe initiation raising group liking is commonly cited (Aronson and Mills 1959) [uncertain: not verified]. Watch for a young person who cannot voice doubt about the group; protect their right to question. [synthesis]
Rupture with the therapist over culture. If the client or family experiences you as dismissive of, or overly enthusiastic about, Africentric frameworks, name it, ask what you got wrong, and return to the CFI stance of learning (4.2). A non-Black therapist should name the difference openly and invite correction. [synthesis]
Rupture with the programme. If elders see you as interfering, return to agreed roles (4.6); if you have safety concerns, safeguarding overrides the relationship. [synthesis]
Non-completion or dropout. Normalise, explore grief or shame (4.15), and help the family avoid framing it as failure of manhood or womanhood. [synthesis]
Post-ceremony let-down or unchanged expectations at home. Use 4.12; coach parents on giving the young person concrete new responsibilities. [synthesis]
Disclosure of hazing, coercion, or harmful practice. Follow safeguarding (4.19); genital cutting, ritual castration and hazing are covered in Domain XVI; forced or child marriage triggers safeguarding and legal duties. Do not describe or evaluate the practice as legitimate. [synthesis; cross-refer Domain XVI]
Gender and sexuality conflict. If the programme's teaching about manhood or womanhood harms an LGBTQ+ or gender-diverse young person, prioritise their safety, consider withdrawal or an alternative, and support them with family (4.16). [synthesis]
Mandated participation (court, school, foster care). Programmes have been run as adjuncts to foster-care independent-living services [source: Gavazzi, Alford and McKenry 1996]; where participation is mandated, clarify what is voluntary, protect assent where possible, and keep the therapeutic relationship separate from compliance reporting. [synthesis]
Spiritual distress or loss of faith. Explore with the CFI module; record Z65.8 if the problem centres on religion or spirituality [source: ICD-10-CM (Unbound Medicine)]; collaborate with a religious leader only if the client wishes. [synthesis]
Bereavement during the programme. If an elder, parent or peer dies, the rite to ancestorship may become very present; assess grief, including prolonged grief where indicated; for suicide bereavement use safe messaging and give crisis resources (988 in the US; Samaritans 116 123 in the UK and Ireland). [synthesis; cross-refer Domain XV 112 and 113]

Sources

Web pages and references:

Articles and books cited by author, year, title:

Gilbert, D., Harvey, A., & Belgrave, F. (2009). Advancing the Africentric paradigm shift discourse: building toward evidence-based Africentric interventions in social work practice with African Americans. Social Work, 54(3), 243–252.
Okwumabua, T., Okwumabua, J., Peasant, C., Watson, A., & Walker, K. (2014). Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 24(6), 702–712.
Washington, G., Caldwell, L., Watson, J., & Lindsey, L. (2017). Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 27(1–2), 100–109.
Gavazzi, S. M., Alford, K. A., & McKenry, P. C. (1996). Family Relations, 45(2), 166–174.
Thomas, O., Davidson, W., & McAdoo, H. (2008). Journal of Black Psychology, 34(3), 281–308.
Pinckney, H. P., Outley, C., Blake, J. J., & Kelly, B. (2011). Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 29(1), 98–112.
Ampim, M. The Five Major African Initiation Rites (author's website) [uncertain: not verified].
Warfield-Coppock, N. (1992). Africentric theory and applications, Vol. II: Advances in the adolescent rites of passage [uncertain: not verified].
Hill, P. (1992). Coming of age: African-American male rites-of-passage [uncertain: not verified].
van Gennep, A. (1909). Les rites de passage (English translation: The Rites of Passage) [uncertain: secondary, unverified].
Turner, V. (1967). Betwixt and between: the liminal period in rites de passage, in The Forest of Symbols; (1969). The Ritual Process [uncertain: secondary, unverified].
Aronson, E., & Mills, J. (1959), on severity of initiation and liking for a group [uncertain: not verified].
Bell, B. (2003), on van Gennep and adventure-programme reincorporation [uncertain: not verified].
van der Hart, O.; Imber-Black, E., & Roberts, J., on therapeutic ritual [uncertain: not verified].
American Psychiatric Association. DSM-5-TR Cultural Formulation Interview and supplementary module on spirituality, religion and moral traditions [uncertain: not verified].

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