The Inner Game and mental-skills training

1. Introduction

Version followed: W. Timothy Gallwey's Inner Game as presented in The Inner Game of Tennis (1974; 50th-anniversary edition 2024) and The Inner Game of Work (2000), read through the official Inner Game site and published summaries; the books themselves are not drawn on. Mental-skills training follows conventional applied-sport-psychology psychological skills training (PST). Imagery follows PETTLEP (Holmes & Collins, 2001) as updated by Scott, Wright, Smith & Holmes (2022). [source: theinnergame.com; Wikipedia, Timothy Gallwey; Scott et al. 2022]

What it is. The Inner Game is a coaching approach, not a psychotherapy and not a staged treatment. Gallwey, a former Harvard tennis captain, set out the approach in 1974. It separates the "outer game", played against an opponent, from the "inner game" played in the performer's mind, whose main obstacles are self-doubt and anxiety. The official site says the approach rests on Zen thinking and humanistic psychology. Gallwey later applied it to golf, skiing, music, work and stress. Wikipedia, citing Whitmore (2002), credits him as one of the first to show a general method of coaching. [source: theinnergame.com; Wikipedia]

Mental-skills training (MST/PST) is the applied-sport-psychology family of teachable skills: goal setting, imagery, self-talk, arousal and anxiety regulation, attention and concentration, and pre-performance routines. Vealey (1988, as cited by Camiré & Trudel 2013) defines it as strategies that help people assess, monitor and adjust their thoughts and feelings. It is a training programme made of separate skills, not one therapy. [source: Camiré & Trudel 2013; Univ. of Thessaly MA02 course outline; Rymal, LibreTexts ch. 20]

How change happens.

Inner Game: Gallwey describes two selves. Self 1 is the conscious, instructing, judging voice. Self 2 is the body-based, intuitive doer. Performance equals potential minus interference (P = p − i), and most interference comes from Self 1. Change comes from reducing that interference, not from piling on instruction. The coach does this by guiding the performer's attention towards accurate, non-judgemental observation of the variables that matter. Self 2 then corrects itself. [source: every.to Praxis summary; antoinebuteau.com summary; Grinnell blog; Wikipedia]
MST: performers learn and over-learn specific cognitive and physiological self-regulation skills, then use them in competition. Imagery, for example, works best as an addition to physical practice, not a replacement for it. [source: Scott et al. 2022; Camiré & Trudel 2013]

Boundary with psychotherapy. The ICF says coaching focuses on the present and future, performance, learning and development, and serves generally well-functioning people. Therapy addresses psychopathology, emotional healing, trauma and the past. A coach does not diagnose or treat, and refers when a client's needs exceed the coach's qualifications, experience or contract. The ICF compares the coach to an athletic trainer who sends an injured athlete to the team doctor. [source: ICF, Referring a Client to Therapy]

The IOC consensus statement on elite athletes' mental health names psychotherapy as first-line treatment for mild to moderate symptoms, with medication added for more severe presentations. It places mental-health care within multidisciplinary sports-medicine teams. [source: Reardon et al. 2019, IOC consensus]

EMCC and Association for Coaching ethics texts are not drawn on, so their exact wording is not given here; check them directly [uncertain]. No statement by Gallwey on where coaching ends and therapy begins was found [uncertain].

A psychotherapist using these methods is working inside their own licence. Contract explicitly whether the work is performance coaching or clinical treatment [synthesis].

2. Framework

Inner Game (no fixed session count; coaching format). Gallwey publishes no phase manual or session count. The structure below comes from summaries of The Inner Game of Work. [source: every.to Praxis; uncertain on exact book wording]

Awareness conversation ("What's happening?")
- Goal: draw out what the client actually observes and how they interpret it, including beliefs and assumptions. Identify the critical variables and how they relate to each other.
- Move on when: the client can describe the situation accurately and without self-judgement, and names the few variables that matter. [synthesis on criteria]
Choice conversation ("What do I want?")
- Goal: restore "mobility", the felt ability to move towards chosen ends. Separate the client's own desires from internalised others' expectations.
- Move on when: the client states a goal they own and you can sense commitment to it. [synthesis on criteria]
Trust conversation
- Goal: help the client reach their own resources by recalling similar past successes and naming first steps. The coach stays out of the answer-giver, problem-solver and judge roles.
- End or recycle when: the client acts and observes the results. That observation starts a new awareness cycle. [synthesis]

Skill-learning format (tennis lesson model).

The coach does not correct technique. Instead the coach directs attention to the ball, the racket or a body sensation, and the learner observes without trying to fix anything.
The official site describes the first step as raising awareness so the student sees and feels what they are doing.
In a live demonstration, Gallwey had a complete novice say "bounce" and "hit" during a rally. She kept the rally going for several minutes. [source: theinnergame.com; Grinnell blog]

Typical session format when a therapist uses the Inner Game [synthesis]

Use 50-minute sessions, ideally with a performance or practice element: on-court or in the rehearsal room, through video review, or with an in-session simulation such as a presentation or musical passage.
Allow 3–8 sessions for a discrete performance goal.
Hold one review session at each change of season or role.

MST programme. Standard texts describe three phases. These texts are not drawn on, so the phase model is [uncertain]. The practical sequence below is [synthesis]:

Needs assessment.
- Use an interview, observation of practice and competition, and an optional psychological-skills inventory. The TOPS (Thomas et al., 1999) is one example of a self-report psychological-skills measure; name instruments only, do not reproduce items. [source: British Triathlon slides]
- Use peer or self-profiling of strengths and weaknesses. [source: Camiré & Trudel 2013]
- Screen for clinical problems before starting (see section 5). [source: ICF; IOC]
Education. Explain what each skill is for and how it works.
Acquisition. Teach and practise the skill in a quiet setting.
Practice and integration. Rehearse the skill in training, then in simulated pressure, then in competition, and adjust it as the athlete's skill grows. PETTLEP's "Learning" element covers this updating. [source: Scott et al. 2022]
Review. Use post-performance debriefs that ask what went well, what did not and whether goals were met. Revise goals periodically. [source: Camiré & Trudel 2013, citing Burton et al. 2001]

Session count and format [synthesis]

Imagery studies cited by Scott et al. used 4–6-week blocks. [source: Scott et al. 2022]
Programmes are delivered one-to-one, or to teams through coaches. Camiré & Trudel describe workshops with coaches, who then deliver the skills themselves. [source: Camiré & Trudel 2013]
Move to the next phase when the athlete can produce the skill on demand in practice, can describe when they will use it, and reports or shows that it helps. [synthesis]

3. Guiding principles

Inner Game principles [source: every.to Praxis; antoinebuteau.com; Grinnell; theinnergame.com — secondary summaries of Gallwey's books, wording paraphrased]:

Reduce interference rather than add instruction (P = p − i). Ask "what is getting in the way?" before you ask "what should they learn?"
Self 1 interferes; Self 2 performs. Notice when the client is commanding, judging or over-trying, and redirect their attention instead of arguing with the inner critic.
Non-judgemental awareness is the precondition for change. Ask descriptive questions (what, where, how much), not evaluative ones (good or bad). A line widely quoted from Gallwey is "Awareness itself is curative", as quoted in summaries.
Critical variables. Help the client find the few variables that matter, and focus attention there.
Focus quiets the mind; fighting the mind does not. Give the attention a neutral, interesting object instead of telling the client to "stop thinking".
Let it happen; don't make it happen. Over-trying is a form of interference. Invite curiosity and experiment.
The coach is a mirror, not an expert. The coach gives no content, solutions or advice. The client thinks aloud and the coach listens in. Responsibility for learning stays with the learner.
Images beat words; showing beats telling; less instruction is better. Demonstrate or use video instead of giving verbal technique lists.
Choice and mobility. Goals must belong to the client. Ask "why would you want that?" to separate their own desires from others'.
Trust. Draw on the client's earlier successes, and avoid creating dependence on the coach.
Separate self-worth from results. Gallwey warns against identifying with one's performance. The sources' attribution of this point is secondary.
Competition as cooperation. Treat the opponent as the provider of the obstacle that lets the performer reach their potential.
Work = performance + learning + enjoyment (the Work Triangle). Ignoring learning or enjoyment erodes performance over time.

MST principles [source: Scott et al. 2022; Camiré & Trudel 2013]:

Individualise. No one-size-fits-all. Build rapport and learn about the athlete before designing an intervention.
The athlete owns the goals. Involve athletes in setting goals, favour mastery or task goals, and revise them regularly.
Imagery adds to physical practice and is tailored to the task and skill level. Run it in real time and in the athlete's own context.
Skills must be practised to transfer. Rehearse them in training before using them in competition. [synthesis]
Know your scope. Performance work is for functioning performers. Screen for clinical conditions and refer or treat as your licence permits. [source: ICF; IOC]

[source for section: as tagged]

4. Intervention inventory

Part A covers the Inner Game techniques that appear in the sources. The step-by-step operationalisations are [synthesis] unless tagged otherwise, because Gallwey's own step wording could not be read. Part B covers mental-skills training. Part C covers screening and referral.

A1. Non-judgemental awareness of "what is"

Purpose: remove Self 1's evaluating and commanding so that accurate feedback reaches Self 2. It is the first step in every Inner Game session. [source: theinnergame.com; antoinebuteau.com; Grinnell]
When: the client over-analyses, criticises themselves, or freezes after errors.
Steps [synthesis]:
1. Ask the client to do the activity, such as a stroke, a phrase of music, or the opening of a presentation.
2. Ask only descriptive questions about one sensory channel: where, when, how fast, how high, what it felt like.
3. When the client judges ("that was terrible"), steer back to description. Do not reassure them, because that is also a judgement.
4. Repeat for several trials before any change is asked for.
5. Ask what they noticed changing on its own.
Example language (illustrative): "Don't try to fix anything yet. Just tell me where the racket face was when you made contact." / "You said 'bad'. What exactly happened?"
Watch for: the client turning "awareness" into a new self-correction instruction, or describing the shot through a sneer. It is working when self-talk drops, movement loosens, and changes appear that you never asked for.

A2. Identifying critical variables

Purpose: narrow attention to the few factors that actually drive the result. [source: every.to Praxis; Grinnell; Wikipedia]
When: at the start of any new skill or work problem, or when the client is overwhelmed by too many tips.
Steps [synthesis based on the published questions]:
1. Ask: what are the critical variables in this situation, and how do they relate to each other? (A paraphrase of the questions reported from Inner Game of Work.)
2. List the variables and ask the client to choose one to observe.
3. Turn that variable into something observable: a rating, a location, a timing.
4. Observe it over several trials.
5. Review it and choose the next variable.
Example language (illustrative): "Of everything that affects how this meeting goes, which two or three really decide it?" / "Let's just track the speed of your speech, 1 to 5, for the next three answers."
Watch for: variables that are too abstract, such as "confidence". Translate them into something concrete you can perceive. Gallwey's AT&T example improved courtesy by having operators listen to and rate customers' vocal tones; the word "courtesy" was never used. [source: Grinnell blog]

A3. Bounce–Hit

Purpose: hold attention on timing and quiet Self 1 by giving the mind a simple, absorbing task. Yandell describes it as Gallwey's key teaching point for timing strokes and improving the Self 1–Self 2 relationship. [source: Grinnell; antoinebuteau.com; tennisplayer.net]
Steps [source: Grinnell description of a Gallwey demonstration; sequencing synthesis]:
1. During a rally, the player says "bounce" aloud at the instant the ball bounces, and "hit" at the instant it meets either player's racket.
2. Give no technical instruction.
3. Continue for several minutes.
4. Then ask what they noticed.
5. Optionally, move from saying it aloud to saying it silently.
Non-sport transfer [synthesis]: give the performer a neutral rhythmic marker to say silently, such as "in" and "out" on the breath, or a marker on each downbeat for a musician.
Example language (illustrative): "Your only job is to say 'bounce' and 'hit' exactly on time. Whether the ball goes in doesn't matter."
Watch for: late or mumbled calls, which mean attention has drifted, often into judging. It is working when the rally lengthens and the player reports a quieter mind.

A4. Watching the ball (seams, rotation) and other incidental-cue focus

Purpose: redirect attention to a fine, interesting perceptual detail so that Self 1 has no room to command. Gallwey reportedly had a student focus on the seams of the ball instead of trying to hit the centre of the racket. [source: Grinnell; tennisplayer.net]
Steps [synthesis]:
1. Choose a cue that is part of the task but carries no outcome, such as the seams, the sound at contact, or the feel of the grip.
2. Ask for a report on the cue after each trial, for example the direction of spin or how loud it sounded.
3. Drop all outcome talk.
Example language (illustrative): "See if you can tell which way the seams are spinning before it reaches you."
Watch for: strain, which means the client is trying too hard to see. Make the cue easier or more playful. Yandell's series questions how literally the eye can follow the ball; treat the cue as an attention anchor, not a visual-science claim. [source: tennisplayer.net]

A5. "Let it happen": images and modelling instead of verbal instruction

Purpose: let Self 2 learn by imitation and feel. Gallwey held that images work better than words, showing better than telling, and too much instruction worse than none. [source: antoinebuteau.com, quoting Inner Game texts]
Steps [synthesis]:
1. Show a model or video of the desired action without commentary.
2. Ask the client to picture it.
3. Ask them to perform with no conscious instruction ("let your body do it").
4. Have them observe the result without judgement (A1).
5. Repeat.
Example language (illustrative): "Watch this three times. Don't analyse it. Then just play and see what your body does with it."
Watch for: the client converting the image into a checklist. It is working when they move more fluidly and reach for fewer words.

A6. The three coaching conversations: Awareness → Choice → Trust

Purpose: the Inner Game's general (non-sport) coaching structure. [source: every.to Praxis summary of Inner Game of Work]
Steps:
1. Awareness: "What's happening?" Draw out the client's interpretations and assumptions and the critical variables.
2. Choice: "What do you want?" The question most often used is "Why would you want to do that?" Use it to separate the client's own desire from "others in us".
3. Trust: recall similar challenges they handled and the first steps they can see. The coach stays out of answer-giving and judging.
Example language (illustrative, built on the reported questions): "When have you met something like this and handled it?" / "What first step do you see?"
Watch for: coach slippage into advice. It is working when the client generates options and commits in their own words.

A7. STOP

Purpose: a brief self-interruption to regain focus and reduce Self 1 reactivity at work or under stress. [source: antoinebuteau.com summary of Inner Game of Work]
Steps:
1. Step back from the activity.
2. Think: notice what is happening and what matters.
3. Organise your thoughts.
4. Proceed deliberately.
In session [synthesis]: practise STOP on a recent trigger, then agree two or three daily cues for it, such as before email, between meetings, or at changeovers.
Example language (illustrative): "When you feel the rush, that's your cue: step back for a breath, then ask yourself what actually matters next."
Watch for: STOP used as avoidance or rumination. Keep it under a minute. [synthesis] The breakdown of STOP in The Inner Game of Stress was not verified [uncertain].

A8. Work Triangle (performance, learning, enjoyment)

Purpose: rebalance work so that learning and enjoyment, not only results, are attended to. Neglecting them erodes performance. [source: every.to Praxis; Grinnell]
Steps [synthesis]:
1. Have the client rate each of the three corners for their current role.
2. Explore which one is neglected.
3. Set a learning goal and an enjoyment observation for the coming week alongside the performance goal.
4. Review next session.
Practice reported from the source: during work, notice honestly how you feel, reflect on what contributed, and give awareness a chance before fixing anything. [source: every.to]
Example language (illustrative): "This week, what would you like to learn in that project, separate from delivering it?"

A9. Clarifying desire and mobility ("conformity to mobility", "CEO of yourself")

Purpose: move the client from following orders and others' expectations towards owned choices, so that motivation supports focus. [source: every.to; antoinebuteau.com]
Steps [synthesis]:
1. List current goals.
2. For each, ask why they want it and whose voice it is.
3. Sort the goals into "mine" and "others in me".
4. Nourish the owned desires with attention and time, rather than using Self 1 to fight Self 1.
5. Ask what they would do as the "CEO" of their own work life.
Example language (illustrative): "If nobody were watching or grading, would you still want this?"
Watch for: guilt, or a family or coach conflict surfacing. That may be therapy-level material (see section 5).

A10. Separating identity from results

Purpose: reduce the threat value of mistakes by loosening the link between the person's worth and their performance. [source: antoinebuteau.com, attributing the idea to Gallwey via a secondary article]
Steps [synthesis]:
1. Notice the identity statements the client makes, such as "I'm a choker".
2. Restate them as events ("you missed two of five break points").
3. Explore what the result does and does not say about them.
4. Reframe the opponent as the one supplying the challenge they need. [source: antoinebuteau.com]
Example language (illustrative): "That was a missed volley, not a verdict on you."
Watch for: pervasive worthlessness. That suggests depression and calls for screening (C1).

A11. Relaxed concentration on the present

Purpose: keep attention on the current point or task, not on the score or outcome. Gallwey: "Fighting the mind does not work"; focus works instead. [source: antoinebuteau.com, quoting Inner Game of Tennis]
Steps [synthesis]:
1. Pick a present-moment anchor, such as breath, ball, sound or the feel of the feet.
2. Return to it each time the mind goes to the outcome, without criticism.
3. Combine it with between-point routines (B6).
Example language (illustrative): "When your mind jumps to the scoreboard, just come back to the sound of the ball."

Part B. Mental-skills training. The primary textbooks are not drawn on (Williams 2009; Weinberg & Gould 2007), so detailed steps below are [synthesis] unless a source is tagged.

B1. Needs assessment and strengths/weaknesses profiling

Purpose: decide which skills to train, and screen for clinical issues. [source: Camiré & Trudel 2013; British Triathlon slides naming TOPS; ICF; IOC]
Steps:
1. Run an intake interview covering sport history, performance pattern, pressure situations, current self-regulation, life stressors and mental-health screening (see C1). [synthesis]
2. Observe a practice or competition, or review video of one. [synthesis]
3. Optionally use a validated psychological-skills inventory, such as TOPS. Name it only; use licensed copies. [source: British Triathlon slides]
4. In teams, peer profiling can help: athletes write one strength and one weakness for each teammate, and the coach compiles an individual report and discusses it one-to-one. [source: Camiré & Trudel 2013]
5. Agree on two or three target skills. [synthesis]
Watch for: rushed peer profiling, which Camiré & Trudel observed; shaming in team settings; and confidentiality when coaches see the results. [source: Camiré & Trudel 2013; confidentiality point synthesis]

B2. Goal setting

Purpose: direct effort and attention, and support a mastery climate. [source: Camiré & Trudel 2013, citing Burton et al. 2001]
Steps:
1. The athlete takes part in setting the goals.
2. Favour task or mastery goals, meaning improvement and execution, over outcome-only goals.
3. Write the goals down and revisit them at practice.
4. Before competition, set a small number of task goals; one coach in the study had each unit choose three.
5. After competition, debrief: what went well, what didn't, and were the goals met?
6. Revise the goals periodically. [source: Camiré & Trudel 2013]
Additional structure [synthesis; not in the sources]: make goals specific and measurable, set short-term goals on the way to long-term ones, and pair each goal with a strategy ("by doing what?").
Example language (illustrative): "What do you want to be able to do better by the end of the month, regardless of results?"
Watch for: goals imposed by the coach, goals that are only about outcomes, and goals that are never reviewed. These are the pre-intervention patterns Camiré & Trudel observed. For eating, weight or training-load goals, see section 5.

B3. PETTLEP imagery

Purpose: use multisensory mental rehearsal for skill development, skill performance, confidence and anxiety control. [source: Scott et al. 2022; British Triathlon slides citing Cumming et al. 2013]
The seven elements as practical considerations, not a checklist [source: Scott et al. 2022]:
- Physical: adopt the posture of the task and hold real equipment.
- Environment: use video or photos of the actual venue.
- Task: match content to the skill and the athlete's level.
- Timing: imagine at real-time speed.
- Learning: update the content as the athlete improves.
- Emotion: include the feelings tied to performance, drawing on Lang's bioinformational theory.
- Perspective: first- or third-person, chosen by task and preference. The work Scott et al. cite suggests first-person for fine motor skills and third-person for gross motor skills.
Steps:
1. Build rapport and find out the athlete's routine and sensations. [source: Scott et al. 2022]
2. Build the imagery content together, in the athlete's own words and images. Avoid heavily verbal, second-person scripts; personally meaningful video or photos can carry the content instead. [source: Scott et al. 2022]
3. Rehearse in kit, at the venue or with its images, in real time. [source: Scott et al. 2022]
4. Practise in short daily sets. Studies used 4–6-week blocks; the set length and frequency are [synthesis].
5. Combine with physical practice. [source: Scott et al. 2022]
6. Update the content as skill changes. [source: Scott et al. 2022]
Example language (illustrative): "Stand as you do on the blocks, goggles in your hand. Run the start at full speed in your mind: hear the beep, feel the push."
Watch for:
- Images that keep showing failure. Rehearse the recovery, or reduce the difficulty. [synthesis]
- Distress from injury or trauma content. Stop and assess (section 5). [synthesis]
- Weak kinaesthetic imagery, which can limit benefit. [source: Scott et al. 2022, citing McNeill et al. 2020]

B4. Action observation combined with imagery

Purpose: use video to supply the imagery content and so improve its vividness. [source: Scott et al. 2022]
Steps:
1. Film the athlete's own movement, or a model of similar to moderately higher skill, in the training setting, with the audio kept. Learners gained more from a model near their own level than from an expert. [source: Scott et al. 2022]
2. The athlete watches while imagining the feel of the movement.
3. Raise task complexity gradually.
Watch for: Scott et al. note the evidence for combined approaches comes from small studies, so treat it as promising. [source: Scott et al. 2022]

B5. Self-talk

Purpose: trigger automatic execution, build confidence, control anxiety, increase effort and direct attention. These functions come from Theodorakis et al. 2005, as cited on the British Triathlon slides.
Types [source: British Triathlon slides]:
- Instructional, e.g. a technique cue such as "strong core".
- Motivational, e.g. "come on, one more".
- Positive, negative, controlling and informational forms are also listed.
Steps [synthesis unless tagged]:
1. Log current self-talk in practice and competition. Athletes use more self-talk in competition than in practice. [source: British Triathlon slides, citing Hardy et al. 2005]
2. Pick one or two cue words matched to the task: instructional for precision skills, motivational for effort and endurance.
3. Rehearse the cues in practice.
4. Link a cue to a refocusing moment. One coach tied a keyword to a pre-game video clip and used it in-game. [source: Camiré & Trudel 2013]
5. For recurring negative statements, practise noticing them and replacing them with the agreed cue.
Example language (illustrative): "What's one or two words that would put your attention exactly where it needs to be on the second serve?"
Watch for: cue words turning into Self 1 commands, which is the point where the Inner Game and MST pull in different directions. Keep cues short and sensory. [synthesis] Also watch for harsh self-talk that persists outside sport and comes with low mood; screen for depression (C1).

B6. Quick Set refocusing routine

Purpose: a 20–30-second recovery after a distraction or error. Simons' routine, as cited by Crust (2012), in Camiré & Trudel 2013.
Steps:
1. Close the eyes and breathe deeply and rhythmically.
2. Picture a successful performance and attend to the positive feeling that goes with it.
3. Bring attention back to the present and to the next action. [source: Camiré & Trudel 2013]
Example language (illustrative): "Breathe. See the next one going well. Now, what is the very next thing you do?"
Watch for: use where the rules allow it, and rehearsal in practice beforehand. [synthesis]

B7. Mental rehearsal after an error

Purpose: replace the replay of a mistake with rehearsal of the correct action. [source: Camiré & Trudel 2013]
Steps: after a fumble or similar error, the athlete briefly pictures doing the action correctly, for example catching, securing and running with the ball. [source: Camiré & Trudel 2013]
Example language (illustrative): "Run it back in your head the way you want it, then let it go."

B8. Arousal and anxiety regulation (breathing, relaxation, psyching up)

Purpose: bring activation into the range that suits the athlete and the task. Arousal regulation is a core PST topic [source: Univ. of Thessaly MA02 course outline]. Procedural detail is not given in the sources, so the steps are [synthesis].
Steps [synthesis]:
1. Map the activation that goes with the athlete's best and worst performances.
2. Teach slow diaphragmatic breathing with a longer exhale for over-activation.
3. Teach brief muscle tension-and-release scans for chronic tension.
4. For under-activation, use upbeat cue words, music or short dynamic movement.
5. Practise in training, then fold the strategy into routines (B9).
Example language (illustrative): "Let's find the level of 'buzz' you had in your best race, then practise getting there on purpose."
Watch for: panic attacks, constant worry or avoidance outside sport. These are clinical anxiety and need assessment. The IOC treats arousal reduction for anxiety disorders as part of clinical treatment. [source: IOC consensus]

B9. Pre-performance and between-play routines

Purpose: a consistent sequence that settles attention and activation before each execution. Listed as a core PST topic [source: Univ. of Thessaly MA02 course outline]; the steps are [synthesis].
Steps [synthesis]:
1. Break down what the athlete already does.
2. Keep the useful elements: breath, a cue word, a brief image, a physical trigger.
3. Fix the order and approximate time.
4. Rehearse in practice and under simulated pressure.
5. Keep the routine flexible enough to survive delays.
Example language (illustrative): "Ball bounce twice, breathe out, see the target, cue word, go."
Watch for: rigid, superstitious or ever-lengthening rituals that cause distress if interrupted. These may point to OCD and warrant clinical assessment. [synthesis; OCD named in IOC consensus]

Part C. Screening and referral. This applies when a psychotherapist works with a coachee or athlete outside a clinical contract.

C1. Screening and the referral conversation

Purpose: catch clinical conditions early and refer, or switch to a treatment contract if you are licensed. [source: ICF; IOC]
Steps:
1. Set scope and the limits of confidentiality in the coaching agreement from the start. [source: ICF]
2. At intake, and whenever the picture changes, check daily functioning: self-care, work or school, home and leisure. Impairment lasting weeks is a strong signal. [source: ICF]
3. Use an athlete-specific screen where appropriate. The IOC names the Baron Depression Screener for Athletes and the BEDA-Q among others; name these only. [source: IOC consensus]
4. For the referral conversation, the ICF recommends:
  - meeting privately, without time pressure;
  - naming the specific changes you have observed;
  - asking open questions and allowing silences;
  - asking how the client feels about the suggestion;
  - giving information on suitable professionals and offering to help make the appointment;
  - expecting resistance, normalising therapy, and raising it again later if needed. The decision rests with the client. [source: ICF]
5. Decide whether coaching pauses or runs alongside therapy. Both are possible if the client is functioning day to day. [source: ICF]
6. If there is imminent danger, follow emergency procedures. [source: ICF]
Example language (illustrative): "I've noticed you've mentioned not sleeping and skipping meals for a few weeks now. That's outside what performance work can fix, and I'd like to help you see someone who specialises in it."

5. Handling problems

Concrete signs that a coachee or athlete needs referral to clinical care

From the ICF [source: ICF, Referring a Client to Therapy]:

Impaired daily functioning in self-care, work or school, home or leisure for weeks.
Marked mood shifts: irritability, anger, anxiety or sadness.
Falling performance at work or school.
Withdrawal from relationships.
Changes in weight or appearance, including neglected hygiene.
Sleep disruption.
A cluster of small signs, judged by how long they last, how often they occur and how intense they are.
No progress: old issues keep returning, endless emotional processing, self-defeating patterns, feeling a victim, lingering effects of trauma.
Any risk of harm to self or others.

From the IOC (athlete-specific) [source: IOC consensus 2019]:

Depression: loss of interest in sport, feeling like a failure, appetite or sleep change, poor concentration, using alcohol or supplements to lift mood. Watch especially after injury, competitive failure, retirement or concussion.
Suicide risk factors: hopelessness, agitation, impulsivity, interpersonal conflict, injury or illness, a prior attempt, substance use.
Anxiety: worry on most days for months, or unexpected panic attacks.
Eating disorders / RED-S: over-exercise, rigid eating, loss of periods, preoccupation with thinness, comparing physiques, restricting or bingeing.
Substances: use to manage stress, pain or emotion; binge drinking.
Sleep: chronic short sleep or insomnia lasting months.
Mood and psychosis: mania or hypomania (which sport can mask) or psychotic features.
Concussion: symptoms lasting beyond the usual window, or mood change afterwards.
Trauma: hyperarousal, avoidance, intrusions, dissociation or unexplained somatic complaints after injury or other trauma.
Overtraining: falling performance with depressed mood.

Added signs [synthesis]:

Harassment or abuse disclosed within the sport. Follow safeguarding procedures.
Gambling problems.
Distress at career transition or de-selection that outlasts ordinary disappointment.
Imagery or self-talk work that triggers intrusive memories.

Crisis [source: ICF]:

If danger is imminent, call emergency services and stay with the person.
Ask about access to means such as weapons or medications, and arrange for them to be handed to someone for safekeeping.
Do not argue or threaten.
Agree who can be notified.
Clinicians should follow their own standard risk-assessment and safety-planning procedures. [synthesis]

Coach's own reactions as a signal [source: ICF]:

Persistent discomfort, feeling responsible for solving the client's problems, dreading sessions, or the client becoming dependent. Take these to supervision.

Common difficulties and responses

Over-trying ("I'm trying not to think!"). Telling Self 1 to be quiet is itself Self 1. Give the attention a concrete object instead, such as bounce–hit, the seams or a rating task, and drop outcome talk for that drill. [source: Inner Game principle via antoinebuteau.com and Grinnell; response synthesis]

The client wants to be told what to do.

Explain the rationale briefly: performance is potential minus interference.
Offer a time-limited experiment, such as "five minutes of just noticing, then we'll compare".
If technical faults are real, coordinate with the technical coach. Inner Game work does not replace sport-specific instruction. [synthesis]

Awareness becomes a new form of judgement ("I noticed I was bad again").

Return to purely descriptive, measurable questions: where, how high, a number from 1 to 5.
Model neutral reporting yourself. [synthesis]

Perfectionism and identity fused with results.

Use A10 and the Work Triangle (A8).
If perfectionism is rigid, pervasive and comes with distress or disordered eating or training, move to a clinical formulation. [synthesis; IOC eating-disorder signs]

Stuck: no change after 3–4 sessions [synthesis]:

Re-check the critical variable; it may be too abstract.
Check the goal belongs to the client (A9).
Look for external interference: coach or parent pressure, selection threat, injury.
Screen for clinical drivers (C1). The ICF names lack of progress itself as a referral indicator. [source: ICF]

Non-adherence to imagery, self-talk or routine practice [synthesis]:

Shrink the practice to one or two minutes tied to an existing cue, such as warm-up or the bus ride.
Have the athlete co-design the content.
Make video-based imagery (B4) the default for athletes who dislike scripts. [source: Scott et al. 2022 on scripts]

Imagery provokes anxiety or shows repeated failure [synthesis]:

Lower the difficulty, rehearse coping with the setback, or switch perspective.
If the images are of a traumatic injury or event, stop performance imagery. Assess for trauma and offer trauma-focused treatment within competence, with stabilisation first. Do not use imagery to "uncover" memories.

Overwhelm or dissociation in session [synthesis]:

Stop the drill and ground the client: feet on the floor, name five things they can see, slow exhale.
Debrief what happened.
Hold off performance pressure work until stable.

Ruptures [synthesis]:

Triggers: the client feels judged, the coach becomes directive (breaking the Inner Game stance), or confidentiality is breached towards a coach or team.
Response: name it, take your share, and recontract on what will be shared and with whom.

Multi-party settings (team, club, employer, parents) [synthesis]:

Clarify in writing who the client is, who pays, what reports go where, and the exceptions to confidentiality. The ICF advises learning local confidentiality law and putting the exceptions in the contract. [source: ICF]
With minors, involve guardians and follow safeguarding rules.

Pressure to set weight, body-composition or training-load goals [synthesis]:

Do not set such targets in performance coaching. Refer to the medical and dietetic team.
The IOC recommends an interdisciplinary team for eating disorders. [source: IOC consensus]

Dual role: therapist as performance coach [synthesis]:

When performance work reveals a disorder, decide explicitly whether to convert to a treatment contract (if licensed and competent) or to refer. Document the change of contract.
The ICF allows coaching to continue in parallel with therapy when the client functions day to day. [source: ICF]

Competence limits [synthesis]:

Sport-specific technical knowledge, anti-doping rules and team-system dynamics may be outside a therapist's competence. Consult sport-psychology colleagues or the sports-medicine team.

Sources

Sources

Further reading (not drawn on)

Gallwey, W. T. (1974; 50th-anniversary ed. 2024). The Inner Game of Tennis. Random House.
Gallwey, W. T. (2000). The Inner Game of Work. Random House.
Gallwey, W. T. (2009). The Inner Game of Stress. Random House.
Whitmore, J. (2002). Coaching for Performance. Nicholas Brealey.
Holmes, P. S., & Collins, D. J. (2001). The PETTLEP approach to motor imagery. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 13, 60–83.
Reardon, C. L., et al. (2019). Mental health in elite athletes: IOC consensus statement. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 53, 667–699.
Williams, J. M. (2009). Applied Sport Psychology (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2007). Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology (4th ed.). Human Kinetics.

Further reading (not drawn on) [uncertain]: Gallwey's books; and the EMCC and Association for Coaching ethics codes.

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