Liberal Catholic Church (Wedgwood, Leadbeater)

1. Introduction

Version followed: the Liberal Catholic Church as its Australian body (liberalcatholicchurch.org.au: History and Teachings pages) and Liberal Catholic Church International (globallcci.org, Statement of Principles) publish it, with the founders' history as the Australian Dictionary of Biography (W. G. McMinn, 1986) and Theosophical reference works report it. Several jurisdictions use the name; their practice differs, so ask which one the client belongs to.

What it is. The Liberal Catholic Church (LCC) is a small sacramental Christian church, not a therapy and not an initiatory order with grades. It came out of the British Old Catholic movement. James Ingall Wedgwood was consecrated bishop on 13 February 1916 and consecrated Charles Webster Leadbeater, a prominent Theosophist, in Sydney on 22 July 1916. The two revised the liturgy (published 1918, completed 1919), and the name "The Liberal Catholic Church" was adopted in Sydney in 1918 [source: LCC Australia, History; ADB, Leadbeater]. Both founders were Theosophists. The church combines Catholic-style sacramental worship with freedom of interpretation of "the Scriptures, the Creeds and the Liturgy" [source: LCCI, Statement of Principles]. The Australian body states that it has no corporate or administrative connection with the Theosophical Society [source: LCC Australia, History].

Its own account of how change happens. Grace is understood to work through the sacraments. Leadbeater's The Science of the Sacraments (1920) and Wedgwood's later writings present the rites in Theosophical terms: Leadbeater described seeing, clairvoyantly, "radiant lines of spiritual forces" streaming from altar and Host, and both stressed ministering angels in Eucharistic worship [source: Theosophy Forward, Theosophical Christianity excerpt]. The liturgy removed references to divine wrath and damnation and stresses co-operation with God rather than supplication [source: Wikipedia, Liberal Catholic Church; uncertain: secondary, unverified]. Evidence status: claims of clairvoyantly observed sacramental forces are faith and visionary claims, not tested empirical findings [synthesis].

For the therapist. You are not working with the church as a method. You are working with clients for whom it is a home, a former home, a family background or a source of distress. The psychotherapist's tasks are meaning in the client's life, cultural assessment, differential assessment without pathologising belief, the founders' controversies where they matter to the client, group dynamics, leaving, religious trauma and safeguarding [synthesis].

2. Framework

2a. The organisation as it publishes itself

Jurisdictions. The LCC says it exists in more than thirty countries [source: LCC Australia, History]. A 1947 split over the suspension of a bishop produced Liberal Catholic Church International, which operates in the USA; both bodies claim the original status, and a further body (the "Young Rite") formed in 2006 [source: Wikipedia, Liberal Catholic Church; uncertain: secondary, unverified]. Independent clergy also claim Liberal Catholic succession [synthesis]. Ask the client which body, and whether it is a recognised jurisdiction or an independent group.
Governance. A General Episcopal Synod of bishops; a Presiding Bishop; a Constitution approved in 1924 [source: LCC Australia, History]. Sources differ on when Leadbeater became Presiding Bishop: 1922 [source: ADB], 1923 [source: Theosophical Encyclopedia, Wedgwood entry], confirmed by the 1924 synod [source: LCC Australia, History] [uncertain].
Orders. Minor orders, then subdiaconate, diaconate and priesthood; bishops consecrated in claimed apostolic succession traced to the Old Catholic Church of Holland [source: LCC Australia, History; LCCI, Statement of Principles]. The Australian body states that only men are accepted for Holy Orders; other jurisdictions may differ [source: LCC Australia, Teachings; other bodies uncertain: not verified].
Clergy. Unpaid, usually in secular work; they "make no claim to spiritual or temporal domination" over members' consciences [source: LCC Australia, Teachings]. Current Australian officers are listed on the church's site.
Sacraments (seven). Baptism, Confirmation, Holy Eucharist, Absolution, Holy Unction (healing), Holy Matrimony, Holy Orders [source: LCC Australia, Teachings]. General confession and absolution are part of public services; private confession is available but "reserved for exceptional circumstances" [source: LCC Australia, Teachings]. Holy Unction and the Eucharist are described as supplementing, not replacing, ordinary medical treatment [source: LCC Australia, Teachings].
Membership and cost. No belief test: membership requires willingness to worship together through a common ritual; visitors may receive communion; people are not asked to leave their own church [source: LCC Australia, Teachings; LCCI, Statement of Principles]. No fees for sacraments or membership are published in the sources consulted; support is by donation [uncertain: not verified].
Teachings members may hold (not required). Successive lives on earth, with conduct shaping the circumstances of the "next birth"; an inviolable law of cause and effect; Christ as an ever-living spiritual presence; a communion of saints or "holy ones" who help humanity; a ministry of angels [source: LCC Australia, Teachings]. These are described here as the church holds them, neither affirmed nor dismissed.
Restricted content. The ordination and consecration rites and their esoteric commentary are given here only in outline; this guide does not reproduce ritual texts [synthesis].

2b. Founders' controversies, as historians document them

Leadbeater, 1906. Officials of the American Section of the Theosophical Society made allegations of sexual misconduct involving boys in his care; a committee was appointed and he resigned from the Society; he was readmitted in December 1908 after Annie Besant became President [source: Theosophy Forward, Theosophical Encyclopedia; Open University, Making Britain]. The charges were never proved in court and there was no conviction [source: Open University, Making Britain].
Leadbeater, Sydney, 1918 and 1922. Reports to the New South Wales attorney-general in 1918 led to police inquiries about earlier allegations and his care of children of Australian Theosophists; further inquiries followed local complaints in 1922. Neither produced prosecutions, but press reports in 1922 caused public scandal [source: ADB, McMinn].
The standard biography is Gregory Tillett, The Elder Brother: A Biography of Charles Webster Leadbeater (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1982) [source: listed by Open University, Making Britain; uncertain: not verified].
Wedgwood's 1922 resignation as Presiding Bishop. A Theosophical source attributes it to overwork, ill health and hostile English press [source: Theosophical Encyclopedia, Wedgwood entry]; other accounts differ [uncertain: secondary, unverified]. Court, regulator or independent-inquiry findings against him: none found in the sources consulted.
No child is named or described in this guide.

2c. The psychotherapist's work: phases

The sources give no session counts for this work; pace is set by the client [synthesis]. Phases [synthesis]:

Engagement and meaning. Goal: understand what the church is to the client (faith home, family heritage, vocation, former community, source of harm). Move on when you can state the client's relationship to the church in their words.
Cultural and differential assessment. Goal: CFI with the spirituality module; separate belief and practice from symptoms; screen safety and safeguarding. Move on when a shared formulation exists and risk is addressed.
Focused work. Goal: the client's actual problem: scrupulosity, grief and "successive lives" beliefs, health decisions, distress at the founders' history, vocation or clergy stress, group conflict, leaving.
Integration and ending. Goal: the client's own settled position toward the church (stay, return, reshape, leave) and community supports; referral where needed.

3. Guiding principles

Describe, do not adjudicate. Esoteric and sacramental claims belong to the client's tradition. Practical meaning: use the client's terms with a short gloss; never argue about clairvoyance, angels or successive lives [synthesis; Vieten et al. 2013].
Religion as diversity. Treat faith like other identity dimensions. Practical meaning: ask about it routinely at intake [source: Vieten et al. 2013].
Know your own lens. Your beliefs or secularism shape judgements. Practical meaning: note your reaction to "Theosophy" or "Catholic" before formulating [source: Vieten et al. 2013].
Do not pathologise unusual experience. Intense spiritual experiences can resemble symptoms. Practical meaning: assess function, distress, cultural fit and course, not content alone [source: Vieten et al. 2013].
Not a minister. The therapist does not give sacraments, blessings, absolution, readings or spiritual direction. Practical meaning: refer such needs back to clergy of the client's choosing [synthesis; Vieten et al. 2013 on not acting as spiritual director].
The church's own principles as a benchmark. The church publishes freedom of conscience and no clerical domination. Practical meaning: if a client reports pressure on belief, money or loyalty, note the gap between practice and the body's stated principles [synthesis; source: LCC Australia, Teachings].
History is not the client's guilt. Founders' controversies may matter to clients, but do not import them into a client who has not raised them. Practical meaning: follow the client's lead [synthesis].
Naming discipline. Speak of allegations as historians report them; do not label living members or clergy as wrongdoers [synthesis].
Safeguarding first. Any current risk to a child or vulnerable adult overrides other goals. Practical meaning: know your local reporting duty before the first session [synthesis].
Medical care stays with doctors. The church itself describes Holy Unction as a supplement to medical care. Practical meaning: support the client's medical decisions with their clinicians; never advise on medicines [source: LCC Australia, Teachings; synthesis].
Consult and refer. Know the limits of your competence; consult or refer, including clergy with consent [source: Vieten et al. 2013].

4. Intervention inventory

The church publishes no therapeutic procedures. The interventions below are the psychotherapist's own, drawn from general clinical sources where cited and otherwise marked [synthesis].

4.1 Spiritual and religious history at intake

Purpose: routine, non-judgemental inclusion of faith in assessment [source: Vieten et al. 2013, competency 12]. Use with every client who mentions the LCC, Theosophy or "Old Catholic" background.
Steps: (1) Ask open questions about current and past affiliation, including which jurisdiction. (2) Ask about role: member, family background, ordinand, deacon, priest, bishop, former member. (3) Ask whether the client also belongs to another church or to a Theosophical lodge or Co-Masonic body (common overlaps historically; [source: Theosophical Encyclopedia, Wedgwood and Leadbeater entries]). (4) Ask how faith helps and how it hurts. (5) Record in the client's words.
Example language (illustrative): "Some people come to the Liberal Catholic Church from other churches, some grow up in it. What's your connection?" / "Is faith something that helps you right now, something that's hard, or both?"
Watch for: guardedness (fear of being seen as odd for Theosophical beliefs); assumptions on your part that "Catholic" means Roman Catholic. Working: the client volunteers detail and corrects your terms.

4.2 Cultural Formulation Interview with the Spirituality, Religion and Moral Traditions module

Purpose: structured cultural assessment [source: APA DSM-5 CFI Supplementary Modules]. Use when faith is linked to the problem, to coping or to conflict.
Steps: (1) Core CFI: the client's definition of the problem, cultural perception of cause, supports and stressors, help-seeking. (2) Module 5 (16 questions) covers four areas: spiritual, religious and moral identity; the role of the tradition in daily, family and community life; its relationship to the problem (including help from leaders, texts and practices); and stresses or conflicts linked to the tradition [source: APA CFI Supplementary Modules]. Paraphrase; do not read items verbatim from memory. (3) Add the Social Network and Coping and Help-Seeking modules if church community or clergy are central. (4) Summarise back.
Example language (illustrative): "Does your church have its own way of understanding what you're going through?" / "Has anyone in your parish helped, or made things harder?"
Watch for: the client's explanatory model (e.g. karma, "next birth", angelic help) differing from yours; that is data, not error. Working: a formulation the client recognises as theirs.

4.3 Exploring the meaning of sacramental practice

Purpose: understand what Eucharist, absolution, unction or ordination mean to the client and how they support or burden them [synthesis].
Steps: (1) Ask which rites the client attends or performs. (2) Ask what happens for them during the rite, in their words (some clients use Leadbeater's language of forces and angels; [source: Theosophy Forward excerpt]). (3) Reflect the function: comfort, belonging, structure, beauty, identity. (4) Ask about recent change in practice (stopped attending, increased attendance) and why. (5) Link to goals: can practice be a resource the client chooses to use?
Example language (illustrative): "When you're at the Eucharist, what's it like for you?" / "You stopped going in spring. What changed?"
Watch for: withdrawal from practice as a marker of depression or of conflict with the community; sudden intensification as possible mania or crisis. Working: the client can name what the practice gives them.

4.4 Working with "successive lives" and cause-and-effect beliefs

Purpose: the church teaches that conduct shapes the circumstances of the "next birth" under an inviolable law of cause and effect [source: LCC Australia, Teachings]. Members may hold this as comfort, or turn it into self-blame for illness, loss or abuse [synthesis].
Steps: (1) Ask how the client holds the teaching: comforting, neutral, frightening. (2) If self-blame appears ("I caused this in a past life"), explore it gently as a belief with consequences, not as a doctrine to dispute. (3) Ask what the tradition offers alongside it: the church's emphasis on grace, the presence of Christ, the "holy ones" who help [source: LCC Australia, Teachings]. (4) Invite the client to consult a trusted priest if they want a theological view. (5) Do not explore or "recover" past lives; regression methods carry suggestion and false-memory risks (see Domain VI 110) [synthesis].
Example language (illustrative): "When you say this is karma, does that feel like an explanation that helps, or like a verdict on you?"
Watch for: karmic self-blame around abuse (do not let it replace safety or reporting); requests to do past-life work in therapy (decline and explain). Working: less shame, more self-compassion within the client's own frame.

4.5 Differential assessment without pathologising belief

Purpose: separate culturally congruent belief and experience (sensing angels, a felt presence at the Eucharist, clairvoyance language from Theosophical books) from psychosis, mania, dissociation, OCD or complicated grief [source: Vieten et al. 2013, competency 6; synthesis].
Steps: (1) Ask whether others in the community recognise the experience as normal for the tradition. (2) Assess distress, function, sleep, speech, insight, course and onset. (3) Check for first-rank symptoms, grandiosity (e.g. a personal mission beyond the tradition's teaching), command experiences, thought disorder. (4) Screen for intrusive blasphemous thoughts and compulsive confession (OCD). (5) Where criteria are not met but faith-linked distress is clinically relevant, consider ICD-10-CM Z65.8, whose inclusion terms list "Religious or spiritual problem" [source: Unbound Medicine ICD-10-CM]; DSM-5-TR wording [uncertain: not verified]. (6) Refer for psychiatric assessment if psychosis or mania is likely.
Example language (illustrative): "Would people in your parish recognise this as part of the faith, or would they be worried too?"
Watch for: your own discomfort with Theosophical language leading to over-diagnosis; conversely, attributing clear mania to "spiritual awakening". Working: a shared, testable formulation.

4.6 Scrupulosity and confession-related distress

Purpose: the LCC's liturgy plays down wrath and damnation and reserves private confession for exceptional circumstances [source: Wikipedia, LCC (uncertain: secondary, unverified); LCC Australia, Teachings], but clients from stricter backgrounds, or with OCD, may still develop religious obsessions [synthesis].
Steps: (1) Map obsessions (fear of sacrilege, unworthiness to receive communion) and compulsions (repeated confession, reassurance from clergy, ritual repetition). (2) Formulate as OCD if criteria are met. (3) Offer or refer for exposure and response prevention, with consent, a clear rationale and agreed limits; plan exposures that do not require acts against the client's faith [synthesis; IOCDF guidance uncertain: not verified]. (4) With consent, involve a priest to state the tradition's view of what is required, once, so the therapy is not used for reassurance.
Example language (illustrative): "Your church says private confession is for exceptional times. What does OCD tell you?"
Watch for: reassurance-seeking moving from clergy to you; exposures that would feel like a betrayal of faith (adjust). Working: fewer rituals, return to worship without dread.

4.7 Health decisions and Holy Unction

Purpose: the church describes unction and the Eucharist as means of grace supplementing medical treatment, and says many physical ailments have psychological roots [source: LCC Australia, Teachings]. Support the client's medical care; prevent the second statement turning into self-blame for illness [synthesis].
Steps: (1) Ask what the client hopes healing services will do. (2) Confirm they are under medical care and following their clinicians' advice. (3) If the client delays medical care, explore fears and route decisions back to the treating doctor. (4) If "psychological roots" produces guilt ("I made myself ill"), explore it as you would any illness belief. (5) Never advise on starting, stopping or changing medicines.
Example language (illustrative): "Your church sees the healing service as working alongside your doctors. How does that sit with you?"
Watch for: delay of treatment; illness shame. Working: the client uses the rite for comfort while keeping medical appointments.

4.8 Responding when the founders' history becomes the client's problem

Purpose: some members, ordinands or descendants of Theosophical families are distressed on learning of the allegations against Leadbeater (1906; Sydney inquiries of 1918 and 1922, with no prosecutions) [source: ADB; Open University, Making Britain]. Help the client make their own sense of it [synthesis].
Steps: (1) Let the client say what they learned and where (books, online forums, family). (2) Offer accurate, neutral facts only if asked, using historians' wording: allegations, inquiries, no conviction. (3) Explore what it changes: trust in the tradition, in sacraments, in their own judgement. (4) Separate the historic founder from the living community the client knows. (5) Respect any outcome: stay, distance, leave.
Example language (illustrative): "What you read about the founder clearly shook you. What does it touch for you: the church, your faith, or something closer to home?"
Watch for: reactivation of the client's own abuse history (move to 4.9 and trauma-informed care); online material that adds unverified claims. Working: the client reaches a position they can hold without shame or defensiveness.

4.9 Safeguarding and disclosure of abuse in a church setting

Purpose: respond to any disclosure of past or current abuse by clergy, members or family, in this or any church [synthesis]. Published LCC safeguarding policy: none found in the sources consulted.
Steps: (1) Know your jurisdiction's mandatory reporting and duty-to-warn rules before you need them. (2) If a child or vulnerable adult may be at current risk, follow reporting procedures; tell the client what you must report and why, unless doing so increases risk. (3) For adult survivors of past abuse, offer choices: police, the church's leadership, an independent body, or no report; support whichever they choose. (4) Do not name or describe the alleged abuser or any child in your notes beyond what your record-keeping duty requires. (5) Offer trauma-focused treatment or referral. (6) Consult a supervisor.
Example language (illustrative): "Thank you for telling me. Before we go on, I need to explain what I have to do if a child might still be at risk."
Watch for: institutional loyalty silencing the client; the client protecting clergy; self-blame framed as karma (see 4.4). Working: the client feels believed and keeps control of what they can control.

4.10 Assessing group dynamics and possible coercive control

Purpose: most parishes are small and voluntary; independent groups using the name vary [synthesis]. The church's own statements (no belief test, freedom of interpretation, no clerical domination over conscience, no pressure to leave one's own church) give a benchmark [source: LCC Australia, Teachings; LCCI, Statement of Principles].
Steps: (1) Ask how decisions are made, how dissent is treated, and how money is raised. (2) Ask about claims of special spiritual status of a leader, secret teachings, pressure on time or relationships, or demands to cut off family. (3) Compare with the benchmark. (4) If high-control features appear, name them descriptively (not as labels) and explore the client's view. (5) Help the client keep outside relationships and sources of information.
Example language (illustrative): "Your church says it claims no authority over your conscience. Does that match what happens in your group?"
Watch for: sudden financial demands, isolation, a leader claiming clairvoyant authority over members' lives. Working: the client weighs the group with their own judgement.

4.11 Leaving, changing affiliation and religious trauma

Purpose: support members leaving a parish, a jurisdiction, the priesthood or faith altogether [synthesis].
Steps: (1) Clarify what is being left (community, role, beliefs) and what is kept. (2) Grieve losses: liturgy, music, friendships, vocation. (3) Address shame, fear or anger linked to past teaching or treatment. (4) Treat trauma symptoms with standard trauma-focused methods if present. (5) Help build new community, religious or secular, of the client's choosing.
Example language (illustrative): "You can leave a parish and still keep what mattered to you there. What do you want to keep?"
Watch for: the therapist taking sides for or against faith; loss of the client's whole social world. Working: a coherent story and new supports.

4.12 Family members' concerns

Purpose: relatives may worry about a member's involvement because of Theosophical beliefs or the founders' history [synthesis].
Steps: (1) Separate worry about unfamiliar belief from evidence of harm. (2) Share the church's published principles if helpful. (3) If there are signs of harm (4.10), focus on keeping the relationship open rather than confrontation. (4) If children are involved, assess safeguarding (4.9).
Example language (illustrative): "What have you actually seen change in your son, apart from where he goes on Sundays?"
Watch for: pressure on you to "deprogramme" (decline); real red flags being dismissed. Working: calmer, more specific family conversations.

4.13 Clergy and ordinands as clients

Purpose: clergy are unpaid and usually work secular jobs [source: LCC Australia, Teachings], so role strain, burnout and vocational doubt are possible [synthesis].
Steps: (1) Map the load: job, family, parish. (2) Explore vocation and doubt without steering. (3) Address boundary problems with parishioners. (4) Consider confidentiality if the client discloses misconduct by other clergy (see 4.9).
Example language (illustrative): "You give a lot unpaid. What keeps you going, and what's running out?"
Watch for: exhaustion; conflicts between jurisdictions affecting the client. Working: sustainable commitments.

4.14 Collaborating with clergy, with consent

Purpose: consult or refer to clergy for theological questions the therapist should not answer [source: Vieten et al. 2013, competency 16].
Steps: (1) Ask whether the client wants this and with whom. (2) Obtain written consent and agree what is shared. (3) Keep roles separate: clergy for theology and sacraments, therapist for clinical work. (4) Do not involve clergy where they are part of the problem.
Example language (illustrative): "Would it help to ask a priest you trust how the church sees this, so we don't have to guess?"
Watch for: the client feeling handed over; confidentiality slips. Working: the client feels supported by both.

4.15 Therapist boundaries and self-disclosure

Purpose: the therapist is not a minister, clairvoyant, healer or initiator in therapy [synthesis; Vieten et al. 2013, competency 13].
Steps: (1) Decline requests to pray, bless, absolve, interpret visions or confirm clairvoyant impressions. (2) If you share the faith or attend the same parish, consider a dual-relationship risk and refer if needed. (3) Self-disclose your own beliefs only when it serves the client, briefly. (4) Ethics points here are [synthesis]; consult your code of ethics (APA Ethics Code, https://www.apa.org/ethics/code) [uncertain: specific standards not verified].
Example language (illustrative): "That's a question for your priest. What I can do is help you think through what it means for you."
Watch for: the client treating you as a spiritual authority. Working: the client brings faith questions to their own community.

5. Handling problems

None of the church's sources address therapy problems; all guidance below is [synthesis] unless a source is given.

Client fears you will mock Theosophical beliefs. Name the fear, use their terms, and show curiosity before formulation (4.1, 4.3). Vieten et al. 2013 frame bias-checking as a core attitude [source].
Client asks you to confirm a vision, an angelic contact or a past life. Do not confirm or deny; explore meaning and function; refer theological questions to clergy (4.14, 4.15). Do not do regression (4.4; see Domain VI 110).
Stuck in karmic self-blame. Shift from "is it true" to "what does believing it do to you"; bring in the tradition's own resources of grace and help (4.4). If it covers up abuse, address safety first (4.9).
Overwhelm after reading about the founders. Slow down, ground, limit online reading for now if the client agrees, and return to the client's own experience of the church (4.8).
Rupture over your perceived stance on faith. Acknowledge it, ask what you said or did, and repair openly; consider whether your own views leaked in [source: Vieten et al. 2013, competency 3].
Non-adherence to medical care because of healing services. Restate the church's own position that rites supplement medical treatment [source: LCC Australia, Teachings]; route decisions to the treating clinician; never advise on medicines (4.7).
Jurisdiction conflicts. Splits (1947 and later) can leave members caught between bodies claiming the same name [source: Wikipedia, LCC; uncertain: secondary, unverified]. Treat as community conflict and loss; do not adjudicate legitimacy.
Signs of high control in an independent group. Describe features, not labels; keep the alliance; plan for safety and outside contacts; offer support whatever the client decides (4.10, 4.11).
Children: safeguarding. If a client or family describes a child kept from medical care on faith grounds, harsh discipline, isolation in a high-control setting, or a child's needs explained by spiritual labels instead of assessment for ADHD, autism or other conditions, follow reporting duties and recommend assessment by qualified professionals; involve parents and seek the child's assent appropriate to age. Never name the child in correspondence beyond what records require (4.9).
Client discloses past abuse by clergy but refuses any report. For adults with no current risk to others, respect the choice, record it, revisit later; where others may be at risk, follow your legal duty and consult (4.9).
Client wants you to join or attend. Decline; explain role separation; consider dual-relationship risk (4.15).
Client in acute crisis (suicidal thinking linked to faith loss or shame). Use standard risk assessment and safety planning; involve crisis services as needed; restrict access to lethal means through storage and removal; return to faith work only once safe.
The therapist feels out of depth. Consult, seek training, or refer [source: Vieten et al. 2013, competency 16].

Sources

Web pages

Books and articles cited

Vieten, C., Scammell, S., Pilato, R., Ammondson, I., Pargament, K. I., & Lukoff, D. (2013). Spiritual and religious competencies for psychologists. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 5(3), 129–144. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032699
Tillett, G. (1982). The Elder Brother: A Biography of Charles Webster Leadbeater. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul [uncertain: not verified].
Leadbeater, C. W. (1920). The Science of the Sacraments [uncertain: not verified; described via Theosophy Forward].
American Psychological Association. Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct. https://www.apa.org/ethics/code [uncertain: not verified].

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